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Abstract

Power output of concentrated solar power systems (CSP) is strongly dependent on mirror reflectivity, which in turn, is affected by soiling and atmospheric conditions. Anti-soiling coatings can enhance efficiency of CSP plants while reducing operating and maintenance costs. Most of them however, suffer from poor endurance and performance. Transparent smooth coatings based on quaternarized silanes may be a viable approach in order to minimize energy losses attributed to soiling.

Introduction

Concentrated solar power (CSP) systems generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight into a receiver [1]. Electricity is generated when the concentrated light is converted to heat. Solar thermal energy generation is a promising technology that can successfully address future energy needs in a renewable and sustainable way. Worldwide, the installed capacity in 2016 was reported to be 4.8 GW [2]. Despite this level of penetration of the technology, the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE) still remains high as compared to conventional power plants. Apparently, the mirror’s efficiency is critical to the system performance. Mirror reflectivity is one of several factors affecting the energy delivered by the solar field to the receiver, but varies significantly, due to soiling and atmospheric conditions. A 1% loss in reflectivity directly leads to a 1% increase in the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). It is self-evident that soiling presents a significant problem which degrades performance and increases operational and maintenance (O&M) costs for plant operators. Plant O&M costs contribute about 11-15% to the LCOE, and mirror washing and water costs are a significant contributor to these costs [3].

Anti-soiling coatings may be an efficient solution to the above problem, since they can result in the reduction of O&M costs and water consumption while increasing the efficiency of a CSP solar collector field [4-9]. However, since the installed capacity is already enormous, anti-soiling coatings should be equally effective regardless if these are applied at the manufacturing stage or at an existing installation.

A New Approach towards Cost Efficient Anti-soiling Technologies

Various reports all over the world have revealed large decrements in the efficiency of existing solar power plants due to heavy soiling (including dust, dirt and pollen), exceeding 25% within a 6-month period especially at areas of high industrial pollution, at seaside locales with abundant salt mist, in deserts and at areas with volcanic activities and mining. Soiling on solar power systems, such as CSP and PV modules, is a complex phenomenon [4]. Scientific research has proven that surface soiling develops in two adjacent layers: one top layer which can be relatively easily removed by wind, rain or cleaning action and one sub-layer, which adheres strongly to the mirror/glass surface and forms a hard crust that reduces the amount of light reaching the solar collector. Besides energy losses, environmental conditions can also give rise to degradation or “corrosion” of the receiving surface.

Protective anti-soiling coatings provide a viable solution to the above problems [4-10]. The application of a non-stick barrier renders cohesion forces among same particles larger than adhesion forces among different particles and self-cleaning of dirty surfaces is facilitated. Although soiling rate, climate and types of soil vary by location the application of an anti-soiling coating improves efficiency by a non-negligible fraction. Coated surfaces accumulate dirt at a slower rate, exhibit in rainy conditions an enhanced self-cleaning effect, need less frequent cleanings and are easier to clean. Just like an improper surface structure however, some coatings may turn non effective and depending on environmental conditions transmittance may decrease below the threshold of uncoated surfaces.

Anti-soiling coatings can be either hydrophilic or hydrophobic [10]. Although hydrophilic coatings have a photocatalytic functionality being able to decompose organic matter by sun irradiation, they work well only on laboratory conditions. Furthermore, most of the environmental pollution is of inorganic nature, so it is rather pointless to apply a coating, which will work properly for destroying only a small portion of the existent organic dirt, especially in arid climates. On the other hand, hydrophobic anti-soiling coatings present more favorable characteristics [11,12]. At least 60% of liquid pollution can be self-cleaned by common hydrophobic coatings, while non-stick properties further aid in reducing soiling, thus significantly reducing cleaning costs. At the same time, the need of abrasive cleaning during regular maintenance is minimized, thus preserving the original optical properties of the receiver. However, most of the hydrophobic coatings in the market today are based on polydimethylsiloxanes or fluoro-polymers [13,14] and suffer more or less by some of the following drawbacks: a) poor endurance, especially with regards to abrasion, cleaning chemicals and adverse environmental conditions such as sandstorms, sea mist, humidity, etc., b) inadeqaute homogeneity and lower overall mechanical strength, c) poor translucency and d) low water sliding angles. More efficient technologies and coatings are therefore urgently needed.

Towards this end, an interesting perspective is the use of acidic aqueous solutions containing quaternarized silanes. The latter can hydrolyze and co-condense to provide non-stick surfaces with high lubricity and pronounced antisoiling attributes [15,16]. Although the resulting layers may lack oleophobic properties, they might be possible candidates of sustainable implementation within larger power plants, such as CSP plants and large PV plants, since repetitive applications (for example, every six months) can provide periodic surface revitalizing of coated surfaces. The opportunity behind this prospect lies in the fact that a permanent coating no matter how effective it is, it will ultimately stain and/or degrade. So, perhaps a temporary coating that performs well even for shorter periods but that can be economically re-applied at regular intervals may be a better alternative. Results obtained after extensive testing of our patented coating systems in real field conditions have shown that such coatings can exhibit pronounced antistatic properties, too.

More specifically, the deposition of a silane-based aqueous solution containing trimethoxysily-propyl dimethyloleyl-ammonium chloride on CSP samples can yield an extremely thin (30-50 nm) and smooth coating with acceptable mechanical strength and with WCAs lying in the range of 95-105°. Moreover, since the surface of CSP mirrors in anionic in nature the addition of quaternarized copolymers at low actives’ levels in the coating solution may further enhance electrostatic attractions and thus, adhesion of the coating to the substrate. Synthesis of such formulations is quite straightforward. In addition, the coating thickness can be tuned in a way to match specific CSP requirements or even specifications of tempered glass sheets used in PV modules. For example, the wave length of the incoming light and the refractive index of the glass can be effectively combined, thus minimizing reflection losses. Even more importantly, this coating may be industrially produced by low concentrated raw materials, thus enabling a low-cost material. If one considers that this material can be applied during routine cleaning of CSP plants, the cost per square meter of coating can be extremely low, i.e., below 0.30 Euros/m².

Application of the coating at large surfaces can be preferably realized by spraying techniques, such as the HVLP technique. The latter allows fast application of the coating in a reproducible manner. Spray guns with nozzles of up to 1.4 mm and working pressures between 20 and 30 psi are preferable in terms of coating uniformity and hydrophobicity. Subsequently after application, fine polishing of the coating with the aid of a motorized felt pad or rinsing with water is necessary to remove coating residues and reveal a functional easy-to-clean/self-cleaning surface, since coating remnants are usually randomly-oriented self-condensed silica species which cannot consistently adhere to the surface, thus blocking its anti-soiling attributes.

Our company has developed a series of permanent and temporary anti-soiling coatings under the umbrella brand SolarSkin™ [17]. Although permanent coatings constitute the flagship of our SolarSkin™ product series, temporary coating variations have their own distinct features and advantages. Below some of their characteristics and specs:

Initial water contact angles of 95+ degrees, i.e., above the hydrophobic threshold of 90°. Maintenance of hydrophobic attributes after 3 months exposure in outdoor conditions with the recorded WCAs being constantly above the widely accepted easy-to-clean threshold of 80°, thus indicating long-term cleanability of mirrors.
Linear wear with less than 20% water contact angle reduction within a 6-month operational period.
Optically free-no transmission losses after aging.
Acceptable abrasion and UV resistance (assessed by preliminary evaluation of WCA reduction after 1 month of continuous exposure to environmental conditions).
Resistance to cleaners, organic solvents (e.g., alcohols), washing detergents and chemicals, up to pH values of 10.
Temperature stability of at least 120°
Resistance to temperature fluctuations. Minimal degradation after repeating heating cycles at 100°C.
Curing at ambient temperature.
Surface roughness of less than 10 nm.
Useful life-cycle of at least 6 months (meaning that the coating can be renovated during periodic cleaning of CSP plants without losing its functionality).

Considering especially techno-economical aspects of the existing anti-soiling coatings, it should be noted that, among the various factors affecting their performance, UV radiation has perhaps the most adverse impact [18]. Therefore, even the most enduring nano-coatings will inevitably degrade, no matter how they resist to abrasion or chemicals. In other words, the commonly employed industrial standards of wet scrub abrasion and chemical resistance are meaningless if they are not coupled with results from WCA degradation after real-field exposure.

Consequently, a “permanent” coating perhaps will not manage to perform optimally after a given time and, perhaps most importantly, more efficiently than a temporary coating, which may be periodically re-applied without additional labor costs, which usually account for more than 50% of the total application cost of a coating. BFP’s modest calculations through the successful implementation of such an approach to current power plants predict power increment between 2 and 4.5%, depending on atmospheric conditions and type/rate of soiling, up to 7% increment in energy generation and up to 70% reduced soiling, all of which translate to lower LCOE and reduced O&M costs.

Of course, long term real-field testing vs. actual performance over time of coated mirrors and coated tempered glass samples will prove the validity of this reasoning. Our company is currently conducting a long-term real-field study at the PROTEAS CSP facility in Cyprus to evaluate effectiveness of the above approach. Analysis of large data sets such as minute-resolution meteorological conditions and daily reflectivity measurements are continuously monitored. The information is analysed and compared to industrial standards in order to identify the optimal solutions sought in terms of cleaning schedule. The analysis also includes a comparative study with coatings that define the technological level in the field, taking into account international standards and specifications, required infrastructure-application equipment, as well as energy benefits driven by the reduction of cleaning frequency. The aim is to quantify the impact of the proposed surface coatings on the annual energy yield and overall cost of the technology. The potential use of alternative washing techniques is explored, too. Finally, further gains that the plant operator can harvest are investigated and quantified. A thorough report on the findings obtained is underway.

Conclusions

Efficient anti-soiling coatings for CSP plants based on quaternarized silane hybrid oligomers can be produced in a facile way. They present interesting features, such as low surface energy, transparency, acceptable mechanical resistance and smoothness. They can be also periodically revitalized, thus maintaining long-term functionality without severe fluctuations in performance, which offers a distinct advantage over traditional permanent coatings. Long-term real field analysis is required to prove the effectiveness of this approach.

Acknowledgments

This research has been supported under the umbrella of SOLAR-ERA.NET Cofund 2 by GSRT – General Secretariat for Research and Development (Greece), RIF – Research and Innovation Foundation (Cyprus) and FFG – Austrian Research Promotion Agency. SOLAR-ERA.NET is supported by the European Commission within the EU Framework Programme for Research and Innovation HORIZON 2020 (Cofund ERA-NET Action, No 786483).

Conflicts of Interest

All authors declare no conflicts of interest in this paper

References

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Wette J, Fernández-García A, Sutter F, Buendía-Martínez F, Argüelles-Arízcun D, et al. (2019) Water Saving in CSP Plants by a Novel Hydrophilic Anti-Soiling Coating for Solar Reflectors. Coatings 9: 739.
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Nikolaos PD, Polyxeni V (2022) Proposing a sustainable strategy for the fabrication of robust anti-soiling coatings with enhanced antibacterial attributes for non-absorbent substrates. Int J Nanomater Nanotechnol Nanomed 8: 001-004.
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Preoperative Evaluation and Delirium Management of Older Adults in Hospital Settings

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DOI: 10.31038/IJOT.2023613

A preoperative evaluation typically includes laboratory testing, imaging studies such as X-ray, computed tomography (CT) scan, electrocardiogram, or echocardiogram to appropriately evaluate the extent of injury, and risk stratification tools such as the Revised Cardiac Risk Index; however, older adults, particularly those with chronic cardiac, pulmonary, or renal multimorbidities may require a more thorough assessment to improve their surgical outcomes [1]. Below is a summary of the different areas of interest in the age-friendly approach to preoperative evaluation organized using the 5M’s Geriatrics Framework, developed by specialists in 2017, to help optimize the care of older adults [1,2].

Mind

It is paramount to accurately establish a patient’s baseline mentation during the preoperative evaluation. By collecting collateral information from caregivers, concerns for underlying cognitive impairment can be more easily identified, which can help define the level of involvement of family members and caregivers needed in the medical decision-making process [3]. It is also important to recognize if a patient is experiencing delirium while conducting the initial interview. Knowing and evaluating a patient’s baseline cognition and screening for delirium informs the patient’s medical decision-making capacity at that point in time, which is vital for obtaining informed consent for surgical procedures [3]. Delirium is an acute and fluctuating state typified by inattention, disorganized thinking, and altered mental status that is classified as hyper- or hypoactive, or mixed [4]. Increased age and cognitive impairment are pre-existing risk factors for delirium. Hospital admission also increases the incidence of delirium, as does acute medical or metabolic issues, being in an unfamiliar environment, lack of sleep or familiar routine, exposure to procedures, diagnostic testing, and anesthesia, prolonged nothing by mouth (NPO) status, and tethering with foley catheters, sequential sleeves, and telemetry (Table 1). Delirium can also prolong hospital stays, increase the likelihood of discharge to nursing homes, and increase morbidity and mortality [1,4,5].

Table 1: List of predisposing and precipitating risk factors for delirium in older adults

Predisposing Risk Factors for Delirium

Precipitating Risk Factors for Delirium

• Age 65 or older

• Male sex

• History of delirium

• History of cognitive impairment or dementia

• Depression

• Functional dependence

• Immobility

• Sedentary lifestyle

• History of falls

• Sensory impairment

• Decreased oral intake

• Dehydration

• Malnutrition

• Medications

• Alcohol use

• Multiple comorbidities

• Chronic renal disease

• Chronic hepatic disease

• History of stroke

• Neurologic disease

• Metabolic derangements

• Severe or terminal illness

• Infection with human immunodeficiency virus

• Sedative hypnotics

• Narcotics

• Anticholinergic drugs

• Polypharmacy

• Alcohol withdrawal

• Drug withdrawal

• Stroke

• Intracranial bleeding

• Meningitis/encephalitis

• Infection

• Hypoxia

• Shock

• Fever or hypothermia

• Anemia

• Metabolic derangements

• Surgery

• ICU admission

• Physical restraints

• Foley catheter

• Pain or stress

• Sleep deprivation

Source: Inouye, S.K. Delirium in Older Persons. March 16, 2006. N Engl J Med 2006; 354:1157-1165. DOI: 10.1056/NEJMra052321

The Confusion Assessment Method (CAM) Test is an effective screening tool for delirium. The CAM test evaluates attention using exercises such as reciting the days of the week backward, months of the year backward, or a series of numbers backward, known as the digit span. The UB- 2 Ultra-brief Delirium Screen (Figure 1) is sensitive and specific for diagnosing delirium and takes one minute to perform. If identified, steps should be taken to mitigate delirium, including a thorough review of home medications to identify commonly deliriogenic drugs, regulation and promotion of patient sleep/wake cycles and the implementation of supportive care measures that reiterate frequent reorientation and reassurance.

Figure 1: The UB-2 Ultra-Brief Delirium Screen with detailed instructions. The UB-2 Ultra-Brief Delirium Screen is a sensitive and specific screening tool for diagnosing delirium that takes one minute to perform. If the screen is positive, it should be followed by the remaining items of the Ultra-Brief Confusion Assessment Method (UB-CAM).

Because delirium is typically multifactorial in etiology, a multimodal strategy is most effective to mitigate the severity and shorten the duration of the course. Once recognized, patients should be medically optimized (evaluation for metabolic disturbances, infectious causes, and cardiopulmonary distress). Review current medications for not only those that are commonly deliriogenic, as mentioned above, but also for medications that cause withdrawal with abrupt discontinuation, such as gabapentin and benzodiazepines, and attempt to reduce medications when able. A bedside examination is vital to assess for potential stressors (i.e., peripheral intravenous lines, telemetry) and screen for urinary retention and constipation. While hyperactive delirium tends to receive more attention in the hospital, patients with hypoactive delirium tend to have poorer outcomes, and it is estimated that hypoactive delirium is three times more common [4,6]. Therefore, when delirium is identified, a multifaceted non-pharmacological approach should be implemented (Figure 2). Antipsychotic usage to manage the resulting symptoms of delirium, such as agitation, may still occur despite a non-pharmacological approach. Though the literature does not identify one specific antipsychotic that provides optimal treatment for delirium, the brief use of antipsychotics in older patients with delirium may markedly reduce the length of hospital stay and associated healthcare costs [4,6]. However, antipsychotics should be used only if the patient presents a risk of harm to themselves or others.

Figure 2: Infographic detailing the multifaceted non-pharmacological approach to older adults identified as having delirium during their hospital course.

Mobility

Describing a patient’s functional capacity with an inventory of the Activities of Daily Living (ADLs) and instrumental Activities of Daily Living (iADLs) (Table 2) is a foundational component of the preoperative assessment. In general, iADLs require more cognitive reserve as they require a degree of future planning, safety awareness, executive thinking, and a level of independence. Deficits in iADLs are typically seen before deficits in ADLs in normal aging. However, the rate of loss of function can exponentially increase when a patient has underlying progressive cognitive impairment. In addition to an ADL/iADL inventory, knowing the patient’s dependence on assistive devices (i.e., cane, walkers) and how their home environment is structured (stairs, safety devices such as chair lifts, modifications to bathrooms) help inform successful disposition planning and set realistic expectations with patients and family members regarding the trajectory of one’s recovery that may ultimately require more help or supervision in the home.

Table 2: List of the six (6) Activities of Daily Living (ADLs) and the eight (8) instrumental Activities of Daily Living (iADLs).

Medications and Medical Complexity

As adults age, changes in normal physiology cause the body and brain to be more susceptible to medication’s adverse side effects. Changes in liver and kidney function (Figure 3), specifically, affect the metabolism of medications that can cause reduced clearance, increasing the time a medication lingers in circulation [7,8]. For example, a patient may have poorly controlled hypertension for which they were prescribed two to three antihypertensives for decades – but with aging-driven changes – these dosages may become more potent and lead to hypotension or dizziness. An accurate and comprehensive medication reconciliation, including a list of all current and recently discontinued medications (both prescribed and over-the-counter) with dosing and frequency, when they were started and their indications, how they are taken, and a review of supplements, is integral to every pre-operative evaluation. Similarly, alcohol use and tobacco smoking history should be elicited to prevent alcohol withdrawal and contextualize concern for poor wound healing.

Figure 3: Infographics describing the natural aging of the renal and gastrointestinal systems and how the aging physiology predisposes older adults to medication side effects and drug-drug interactions.

Matters Most

Goals of care fall under the domain of Matters Most, and it encompasses much more than “Code status.” Still, engaging in a meaningful discussion about priorities can be challenging when the patient has suffered a sentinel event or is presented with the stressor of deciding to undergo surgery. Therefore, it is important to document conversations regarding goals of care to share with the care team, such as postoperative expectations and ideal living situation, and complete the necessary paperwork, such as Health Care Proxy forms and orders for life-sustaining treatments [9]. Many older adults may already have pre-existing Do Not Resuscitate (DNR) and/or Do Not Intubate (DNI) advanced directives. In these cases, the Code Status can be suspended perioperatively to ensure adequate support during surgery and acute postoperative care. It is also possible to reverse the Code Status to “Full Code” but avoid cardiac chest compressions, which some older adults and families prefer. SUMMARY A formulaic approach using the 5M’s Geriatric Framework when evaluating the biomedical, functional, mobility, cognitive, and psychosocial domains affecting our older adults can be incredibly useful in capturing all the elements necessary for a comprehensive preoperative assessment. When applied through the lens of aging physiology with the patient and their family’s goals of care in mind, this information can help increase patient safety during the hospital stay, improve surgical outcomes, and reduce the incidence of complications [10-12].

Keywords

Preoperative assessment, Preoperative management, Delirium, Geriatrics, 5M’s, Older adults, aging

References

McDonald SR.(2022) Perioperative Care: Evaluation and Management. Hazzard’s Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology, 8e. McGraw Hill.
Tinetti M, Huang A, Molnar F.(2017). The geriatrics 5M’s: a new way of communicating what we do. J Am Geriatr Soc. 65::2115.
Drickamer MA, Stoneking S.(2022). Assessment of Decisional Capacity and Competencies. Hazzard’s Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology, 8e. McGraw Hill.
Growdon ME, Mailhot T, Saczynski JS, Fong TG, Inouye SK.(2022). Delirium. Hazzard’s Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology, 8e. McGraw Hill.
Singler K, Thomas C.(2017). HELP – Hospital Elder Life Program – multimodal delirium prevention in elderly patients. Internist (Berl). 58:125-131.
Javedan H,Tulabaev S. (2014). Management of Common Postoperative Complications Delirium. Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, 30:271–278.
Wiggins J, Naik AS, Patel SR.(2022). Aging of the Kidney. Hazzard’s Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology, 8e. McGraw Hill.
Stanfield D, Benson M, Lucey MR.(2022). Hepatic, Pancreatic, and Biliary Diseases. Hazzard’s Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology, 8e. McGraw Hill.
Matlock DD, Lum HD.(2022) Decision Making and Advance Care Planning: What Matters Most. Hazzard’s Geriatric Medicine and Gerontology, 8e. McGraw Hill.
Braithewaite R S, Col NF, Wong JB.(2003). Estimating Hip Fracture Morbidity, Mortality and Costs. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2003;51:364-370.[crossref]
Grigoryan KV, Javedan H, Rudolph J L.(2014) Orthogeriatric Care Models and Outcomes in Hip Fracture Patients: A Systemic Review and Meta-analysis. J Orthop Trauma. 28: e49-e55.
Marcantonio E R, Flacker J M, Wright R J, Resnick N M.(2001). Reducing Delirium After Hip Fracture: A Randomized Trial. JAGS. 49:516-522.

The Creativity Level of High School Teachers in the Northern Region of Israel from the Perspective of Principals and Teachers

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DOI: 10.31038/PSYJ.2023561

Abstract

The study sought to determine the amount of originality of secondary school instructors in Israel’s northern region, as seen by principals and teachers. The descriptive approach was employed, and data was collected using a tool after establishing its validity and reliability. The tool was a questionnaire designed to assess the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in Israel’s northern region, and it included three domains: (originality, flexibility, and fluency). After (400) electronic questionnaires were disseminated to the study population in a basic random manner, the available sample for the study consisted of (266) principals and teachers. The study’s findings revealed that the level of creativity among secondary school teachers in Israel’s northern region was average, and there were statistically significant differences in the study sample’s estimates of the level of creativity among teachers due to the effect of the gender variable in favour of females, and there were no statistically significant differences. Because of the influence of the factors qualification and experience. The study recommended that principals be encouraged to create a safe school environment free of conflict because it has a positive effect on increasing teacher creativity, giving principals more freedom in running their schools, and easing the burdens on teachers to increase their creativity.

Keywords

Creativity, School principals, Teachers, The Northern Region in Israel

Introduction

Institutions today are characterized by an unstable state, as they are open social activities that interact with the environment in which they live, with characteristics such as: growth, expansion, and diminishing spatial and temporal boundaries and boundaries, in light of rapid technical changes, and the rapid diversity and complexity of operations, and the intensity of competition over resources. Educational institutions at various levels are considered part of society, in which individuals are an essential component, and the presence of humanity in any institution dictates a number of complex internal and external relations to achieve its goals, as well as the exchange of experiences in it, and from these relations cases of differences and contradictions that must be managed arise. It is prudent to resolve and terminate it so that it does not interfere with the running of the institution and so impede its attainment of its objectives. In educational institutions that seek competition and change, the importance of creativity has increased in recent years, as it is reflected in the creation of new ideas in the educational process, as well as the creation of original ideas that are far from the traditional context in thinking, as well as the development of teaching methods, methods, and means that enable the transformation of these ideas into reality. Students, teachers, school administration, and society benefit from practical, productive, and beneficial value [1]. Creativity results from igniting instructors’ desire to work and motivating them to exert effort, effective engagement in work and performance, and shouldering responsibilities in order to realize the educational institution’s goals. As a result, job creativity benefits both the teacher and the school community.

Ciltas [2] confirms that the teacher’s creativity is closely related to the ability to imagine, because the teacher with the highest level of creativity successfully participates with his students physically and mentally in the various activities, and he can move away from the familiar or usual methods of teaching, and he also uses modern tools. new ways and ideas. Abd al-Rahman and al-Khatib [3] agree that the teacher is an important component of the educational system. The teacher with creative abilities is charged with growing students’ creative abilities since he is the one who increases creative thinking skills with his questions and is also capable of arousing students’ curiosity, and he is the teacher. The adaptable one who turns educational content into activities that encourage student creativity and is in charge of establishing an incubation atmosphere for creativity.

The success of the teaching-learning process is heavily dependent on successful management, as represented by the school principal, and the skills and capabilities he possesses that assist him in managing the school as an educational leader who influences all of its employees, and has the ability to neutralize conflicts and transform them into positive opportunities that support the educational process, and works to draw the way for individuals, and the coordination of their efforts. Furthermore, one of the most essential educational inputs in the success of the educational process is the teacher. Tafvlin [4] emphasized its significance to individuals interested in education by emphasizing that the success of the educational process and attainment of its goals are heavily reliant on the creative teacher who believes in his vocation. The Arab education system in Israel is facing unique political, economic, and social challenges, which are reflected in the performance of all components of the educational process in Arab schools. School principals, like the rest of those components, are impacted by the policies that are imposed on them, and the vast majority of them have not received any kind of training in diagnosing organizational conflict in their schools or how to effectively manage it, and all of their skills are the result of their experience, efforts, and personal characteristics [5]. Furthermore, the impact of the tough conditions that the Arab school system faces extends beyond principals to instructors. Teachers are dissatisfied with these plans, according to Arar and Al-Hajj [6], because of the psychological demands they put on them, which may influence their levels of creativity.

Statement of the Problem and Questions of the Study

For educational institutions to attain their targeted educational goals—which should be in step with contemporary and accelerated changes—teaching staff innovation is essential. The researcher came up with the idea for this study, which examined the degree of teachers’ creativity, as a result of working in secondary schools in Israel’s northern region and responding to the questions below:

From the perspectives of administrators and teachers, what is the level of originality of secondary school instructors in secondary schools in the northern region of Israel?
Are there statistically significant differences between the responses of the study sample regarding the degree of creativity of secondary school teachers in the northern region of Israel as a result of the influence of the variables (sex, educational attainment, experience, and job title) at the significance level (α=0.05)?

Purpose of the Study

The study aimed to accomplish the following goals:

Exposing the degree of creativity of secondary school teachers in the northern region of Israel in order to enhance their role in the interest of the school and boost the level of creativity.
-Outlining the variations in the study sample’s responses regarding the creativity of secondary school teachers in Israel’s northern region in accordance with the variables of the intermediate study in order to determine the reasons for these variations and address them in a way that enhances teachers’ levels of creativity.
-Making the creativity of secondary school instructors in Israel’s northern region public in order to raise standards, build on areas of strength, and address areas of weakness.

Significance of the Study

The theoretical significance of the current study stems from its expansion of earlier research that examined the creative variable. It represents a fresh addition to the Arab library in terms of enhancing it with new theoretical material from its perspective, which deals with the variable in secondary schools in the northern part of Israel.

The outcomes of the current study, the methods utilized to get the data, and the suggestions that will be made in light of those conclusions have all given it practical significance. The researcher anticipates that the following individuals will gain from its findings and suggestions:

The Ministry of Education’s decision-makers and educational policy-makers to determine the level of creativity among instructors.
Supervisors of education at the Ministry of Education.
Secondary school teachers.
Researchers, graduate students, and those with an interest in societal variables.

Review of the Related Literature

In order to keep up with change, speed, and openness to different cultures, it is crucial to use one’s mind and invest it wisely. This calls for attention to creative minds who are able to find solutions to many problems that arise. The current era is characterized by an information and technological revolution, rapid changes, and multiple developments in all areas of life. It endangers both individuals and society and hinders society’s ability to stay up with changes and apply knowledge to a variety of occupations, making the need to foster creativity imperative [7]. There is a direct connection between instruction and the growth of creativity. It is the responsibility of the teacher to foster creativity in the students, and it is the responsibility of the creators to advance society. As a result, it is impossible to distinguish between the desire to promote holistic social development and the interest in teaching and nurturing creativity. Thus, the teacher’s responsibility for the growth, instruction, and development of creativity. No matter how excellent and well-rounded the school curriculum is, if it is being applied by a teacher who is unqualified for the job, it will not work. The educator drives change and directs the educational process towards the growth of creativity. The employment of contemporary teaching approaches that facilitate dialogue and interaction, stimulate initiative and uniqueness, and welcome student viewpoints and ideas is what fosters creativity in the classroom [8].

In his definition of creativity, Ayoub [9] said that creativity is “the individual’s ability to produce, characterized by the greatest amount of intellectual fluency, spontaneous flexibility, originality, and far-reaching repercussions, in response to a problem or an exciting situation.” It is also known as “the ability to generate innovative and useful ideas, and to provide solutions to everyday problems and challenges,” according to Phillip [10].

The Elements that Make Creativity

The researchers disagreed on the exact number of components that make up creativity, but they did agree on the following, which is what is presented here [11,12]:

A Feeling of the Problem

This is regarded as the most crucial component of creative thinking, and it entails properly articulating the issue, as well as appreciating its scope, dimensions, and effects.

Fluency

Fluency is the capacity to generate the greatest amount of solutions to an issue with the greatest speed and ease.

Flexibility

This refers to the capacity to alter one’s mental state in response to a change in circumstance. Flexibility is the variety or distinction of ideas that the creative person generates. Spontaneous or automatic flexibility is regarded as a manifestation of flexibility and is defined as the person’s capacity to respond to a certain stimulus or stimuli with the greatest number of ideas.

Originality

This refers to a person’s departure from conventional modes of thought and exploration of novel concepts. The desire to create something new or different as a result of being dissatisfied with the current quo is what leads to originality. The process of being original can be broken down into the following steps: defining the idea, concept, or problem, referring to it in more detail or for clarification, coming up with new ideas that are based on the concept and describing them verbally or using educational tools, developing newly acquired intellectual processes, and evaluating the effectiveness of those processes.

Expansion and Elaboration

This refers to expanding the current primary forms, adding new elements and components, and providing as many results as is conceivable for any given person.

Analysis and Linking

Analysis is the capacity to break down a thing or matter into its constituent parts or primary parts and then isolate these parts from one another in order to comprehend and realize the significance and function of each part as well as the relationship between the parts. The ability to recombine these pieces in a way that makes it easier to analyses them and derive conclusions based on the structure of the links between them is what is meant by the term “connection.”

Risk

It entails taking the initiative to adopt novel concepts and procedures and look for solutions.

Creativity

Creativity was explained through a group of theories, which varied according to different schools and trends. The researcher presents some of these theories as follows:

First: The Theory of Research and Excellence

This theory is attributed to Peters & Waterman [13], who indicated in their book, In search of Excellence, that the common values and principles of creativity are the following:
Desire and motivation for achievement, always giving precedence to action, and initiating performance more than just spending a lot of time thinking and analyzing.
Developing relationships and links with the beneficiaries of the service from the institution, with the aim of getting to know them and benefiting from their suggestions.
Promoting and achieving the concept of productivity, by developing the capabilities of all employees in the organization, with dignity and humanity, and encouraging their spirit of adventure and creativity.
Simplifying procedures and administrative levels by relying on a few of them, and tending permanently to reduce leadership positions.

Second: Creative Thinking Theory

This theory is attributed to Edward De Bono [14], and it is named after the six hats. It relies on mental attitudes called parallel thinking, where everyone thinks about them in one way or one approach. De Bono divided the colors of the six hats as follows:

The white hat: It is responsible for collecting information, knowing the current situation and the surrounding problems and circumstances, and it represents the objective view of things.
The red hat: It is related to feelings, meaning that the person who wears it only says what he feels about a suggestion without giving reasons, as it is related to emotion, intuition, and instinctive thinking.
The green hat: It represents providing creative ideas, alternatives, options and possibilities, and it is often responsible for suggestions and creative thinking.
The blue hat: Its main task is to assist in controlling, determining capabilities, and anticipating results, in other words, controlling the thinking process.
The yellow hat: It is responsible for logic, benefits, and showing the value of things, that is, it represents positive logic.
The black hat: It is the hat of pessimism and caution, in which problems and weaknesses are assumed in the subject being researched, and it represents negative thinking.

The Six Hats method has been widely accepted, due to its ease of application, as it changes the prevailing way of thinking in meetings, and it takes a pattern (with or against), so that it becomes possible for the participants to establish a constructive dialogue among themselves.

Al-Enezi [15] classified levels of creativity as follows:

a. Creativity at the Individual Level

It is the creativity achieved by individuals who have creative abilities and attributes, and they are usually characterized by innate creative features, such as: knowledge, education, and intelligence, which is represented in the ability to form flexible relationships between things, and personality, where the creative person is characterized by a spirit of risk, independence, perseverance, motivation, and openness. And childhood, which is usually characterized by diversification, and social habits that are characterized by interaction and exchange of opinions with others.

b. Creativity at the Community Level

It is the creativity that is presented or reached by the group, and the creativity of the group is usually greater than the individual sum of the creativity of its members, and this type of creativity is characterized by the following characteristics:

A mixed-sex group produces better solutions than a single-sex group.
A highly diverse group produces better solutions, and a creative team solution requires that it be made up of people with different personalities.
A cohesive group is more willing or motivated to work than a group that is less cohesive.
The members of a harmonious group are more inclined to creativity than the group whose members are not in harmony.
The newly formed group tends to be more creative than the old group.
Creativity increases with the increase in the number of members of the group, as capabilities, knowledge and skills expand.

c. Creativity at the Enterprise Level

It is the comprehensive and integrated creativity at the level of the organization so that it dyes it and makes it a distinct distinguishing mark in itself from others, as they are distinguished organizations in the level of their performance and work, and the work of these organizations is often typical and ideal for other organizations, and this level of creativity is carried out according to the following conditions:

The need to realize that creativity and leadership need people with deep thinking, which requires that the institution provide individuals with learning and training opportunities.
The need to learn to solve problems in a creative way, and this means adapting thinking to be more flexible.
The need to develop and enhance creative skills and capabilities related to finding problems, getting used to absolute and comprehensive thinking, and exploring the dimensions of any situation.
The need to develop creative skills in creating problems or building problems.

d. Creativity in Educational Institutions

The school plays a major role in developing creativity among students, as it is the second environment – after the family – in which students spend a long period of time. Creative, which reflects positively on his performance by providing a climatic environment capable of showing creative people, as well as paying attention to various activities related to the development of their creative thought.

The creative teacher, with the culture and positive attitudes he carries towards his profession, works to nurture creativity among students, relying on his understanding of creativity, his awareness of its dimensions, and his ability to discover creative people and follow them in the creative process. And because teaching methods have a great role in nurturing creativity, it is necessary that these methods meet the development of students’ desire for self-learning, the development of their thinking abilities, the development of communication and leadership skills, the promotion of teamwork spirit, and the development of an emotional social classroom climate..

The researcher concludes that the school in the modern era requires an additional effort from the school principal, in order for the school administration to take creative paths, through planning and setting goals, or defining appropriate procedures for implementation and follow-up, and this is through participation, discussion and various and different meetings inside and outside the school, with the aim of achieving The goals of the educational institution that he heads, as well as delegating powers to those working with him in the school to share with him the responsibility, and to carry out the school’s burdens and supervise it, so that there is a commitment to implementing these goals.

Empirical Literature

Nasser’s study [16] aimed to identify the level of creative behavior among teachers in public schools in Israel. The sample of the study consisted of (502) male and female teachers, who were chosen by a simple random method. The study used the descriptive survey method, and the questionnaire as a tool for the study. The results showed that the level of creative behavior among teachers was high, and there were statistically significant differences due to the effect of the gender variable in favor of males, and the effect of the educational qualification variable in favor of bachelor’s holders, and the effect of the variable years of experience in favor of the “ten years or less” category.

Al-Qahtani’s study [17] aimed to identify the level of Islamic education teachers’ practice of creative thinking skills from the point of view of their students and its relationship to the variables of gender and the type of department (scientific, literary). The study used the descriptive survey method, and the questionnaire was used as a tool for the study. The study sample consisted of (365) male and female students who were randomly selected from Kuwaiti schools. The results showed that the level of Islamic education teachers’ practice of creative thinking skills in secondary schools in Kuwait was high, and there were no statistically significant differences due to the effect of the gender variable, and there were statistically significant differences due to the effect of the type of department variable, in favor of science students.

Marzuki & Lampuasa [18] conducted a study aimed at identifying the role of school principals in developing the motivation of English language teachers. The study used a descriptive approach based on a case study, as the study was applied in Azhar-Palu High School in Indonesia. The results showed that the most effective methods for developing teachers’ creativity are, in order: involving teachers in designing school programs and educational activities, adopting a fair policy in evaluation and providing incentives, and activating the supervisory role of course coordinators.

The study of Al-Issa [19] aimed to identify the role of basic school principals in the upbringing of Mafraq in developing the creative energies of teachers from the teachers’ point of view, and the impact of the variables of gender, experience, and educational qualification on the estimates of the study sample. The descriptive survey method was used, and the questionnaire was a tool for data collection, and the study sample consisted of (199) male and female teachers, who were selected using a simple random method. The results of the study showed that the role of principals of basic schools in Mafraq Education in developing the creative energies of teachers from the teachers’ point of view was high, and that the level of creativity among teachers was high, and there were no statistically significant differences about the level of creativity of teachers due to the variables of gender, experience and qualification.

The study of Adigüzel & Okçu [20] investigated the relationship between the school organizational climate and the level of teachers’ creativity. The study used the correlative descriptive method, and the study sample consisted of (756) male and female teachers who were chosen by the random cluster method from secondary schools in Turkey, and the questionnaires were used as data collection tools. The results showed that the level of the organizational climate was average, and that the level of teachers’ creativity was average, and that there was a correlation between the organizational climate and teachers’ creativity. The results also showed that there were statistically significant differences due to the effect of the gender variable in favor of males, and to the effect of the experience variable in favor of the “more than ten years” category.

The study of Ziada [21] aimed to identify the role of secondary school principals in Zarqa Al-Awwal Education in providing the requirements of a culture of creativity from the teachers’ point of view and its relationship to the variables of gender, years of experience, and academic qualification. The descriptive survey method was used, and the questionnaire was used as a data collection tool. The study sample consisted of (342) male and female teachers, who were selected using a simple random method. The results showed that the role of secondary school principals in the first Zarqa Education in providing the requirements of the culture of creativity from the point of view of teachers came to a medium degree, and there were no statistically significant differences due to the effect of gender and academic qualification, and there were statistically significant differences due to the effect of years of experience in favor of less than 5 years.

Method and Procedures

The descriptive correlational approach was used to identify the degree of practice of secondary school principals in the northern region in Israel strategies for managing organizational conflict and the level of creativity of teachers in those schools from the point of view of principals and teachers, as well as the correlation between them, due to the suitability of this approach to achieve the objectives of the current study. He is interested in studying the reality or phenomenon as it exists in reality, and as an accurate description that expresses it qualitatively or quantitatively, so that it gives a numerical description that shows the amount or size of this phenomenon.

Participants and Variables of the Study

The study population consisted of all the principals and teachers of secondary schools in the northern region inside Israel, which numbered (750) male and female teachers, working in (25) secondary schools, according to the human resources statistics of the Ministry of Education for the academic year 2022-23.

In order to select the study sample, (400) electronic questionnaires were distributed to the entire community of principals, and (375) teachers were chosen by the simple random method. Teachers, and accordingly the study sample consisted of (266) principals and teachers, who were chosen by the available method, with a rate of approximately (35.4%) of the study population. Table 1 shows the distribution of the study sample according to the intermediate variables (sex, educational qualification, experience, and job title).

Table 1 shows that 33.1% (number=88) of the study sample were males, and 66.9% (number=178) were females. 17.3% (number=46) of bachelor’s degree holders or less, and 82.7% (number=220) of graduate students. 33.5% (n=89) had experience of less than 10 years, and 66.5% (n=177) had experience of 10 years or more. 90.6% (n=241) were teachers, and 9.4% (n=25) were principals.

Table 1: The sample was distributed according to the intermediate variables

tab 1

Results of the Study

This chapter deals with a presentation of the findings of the study, which aimed to reveal the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the northern region inside Israel, as follows:

The results related to the answer to the first question, which states: “What is the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the northern region inside Israel from the point of view of principals and teachers?”

To answer this question, the arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study sample’s estimates of the creativity level of secondary school teachers in the northern region in Israel were calculated from the point of view of principals and teachers, and Table (15) shows this (Table 2).

The results related to table (15) show that the arithmetic mean of the estimates of the study sample for the fields of creativity combined is (3.38) and the standard deviation is (0.83) at an average level, and the arithmetic means for the fields of creativity ranged between (3.26) and (3.46) at an average level, where the estimates of the field of flexibility came in the first rank With an arithmetic mean (3.46) and a standard deviation (0.93) at an average level, the estimates for the field of fluency came in the second rank with an arithmetic mean (3.43) and a standard deviation (0.89) and at an average level. The arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study sample’s estimates on the areas of creativity were calculated separately, and tables 16 to 18 show this.

Table 2: The arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study sample’s estimates for the fields of creativity

tab 2

Table (16) shows the arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study sample’s estimates in the field of resilience (Table 3).

The results related to table (16) showed that the total arithmetic mean of the estimates of the study sample for the field of flexibility was (3.46) and the standard deviation was (0.93) at an average level, and the arithmetic means for the field of flexibility ranged between (3.39) and (3.53) at an average level, as paragraph (13) came Its text “takes the initiative to adopt new ideas” ranked first, with an arithmetic mean (3.53) and a standard deviation (1.08), at an average level, while paragraph (12) and its text “accepts unfamiliar job tasks” came in the last rank, with an arithmetic mean (3.39) and a standard deviation (1.10). , and at an average level.

Table 3: Arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study sample estimates in the field of flexibility

tab 3

Domain of Fluency

Table (17) shows the arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study sample’s estimates in the field of fluency (Table 4).

The results related to table (17) showed that the total arithmetic mean of the study sample’s estimates for the field of fluency was (3.43) and the standard deviation was (0.89) at an average level. “Innovates solutions to deal with problems” ranked first, with an arithmetic mean (3.56) and a standard deviation (0.96), and an average level, while paragraph (19) and its text “avoids routine teaching methods” came in the last rank with an arithmetic mean (3.28) and a standard deviation (1.04), And at an average level.

Table 4: Arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study sample estimates in the field of fluency

tab 4

Domain of Originality

Table (18) shows the arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study sample’s estimates in the field of originality (Table 5).

Table 5: Arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study sample estimates in the domain of originality

tab 5

The results related to table (18) showed that the total arithmetic mean of the study sample’s estimates for the field of originality was (3.26) and the standard deviation was (0.82) at an average level. Its text “employs the experiences of others in solving the problems it faces” ranked first, with an arithmetic mean (3.41) and a standard deviation (1.00), at an average level, while paragraph (3) and its text “answers questions in an unfamiliar way” came in the last rank with an arithmetic mean (3.14). And a standard deviation (0.94), at an average level.

The results related to the answer to the second question, which stated: “Are there statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α=0.05) in the responses of the study sample about the creativity level of secondary school teachers in the northern region inside Israel due to the effect of the variables (Gender, educational qualification, experience, and job title)?”

To answer this question, the arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study sample’s estimates about the creativity level of secondary school teachers in the northern region in Israel were calculated, according to the intermediate variables, and Table (19) shows that (Table 6).

Table 6: The arithmetic means and standard deviations of the study sample’s estimates about the creativity level of secondary school teachers, according to the intermediate variables.

tab 6

The results related to table (19) showed that there are apparent differences between the arithmetic means of the study sample’s estimates about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three domains and the totality, according to the intermediate variables.

To determine the statistical significance of the differences between the arithmetic averages of the study sample’s estimates about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three domains (linear combination), according to the intermediate variables, four-way MANOVA was used, using the Hotelling’s Trace test, and the table (20) shows that (Table 7).

Table 7: The results of the (Hotelling’s Trace) test for the effect of the intermediate variables on the study sample’s estimates on the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three domains (linear structure).

tab 7

The results related to table (20) showed that there is a statistically significant effect of the variables of gender and job title in the estimates of the study sample about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three domains (linear combination), and it explained 3.3%, 4.8% of the variance in estimates. While there is no statistically significant effect of the educational qualification and experience variables in the estimates of the study sample about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three domains (linear combination).

To determine the statistical significance of the differences between the averages of the study sample’s estimates for the areas of institutional excellence (individually), according to the intermediate variables, the quadruple analysis of variance was used, and Table (21) shows this (Table 8).

Table 8: The results of the quaternary analysis of variance for the comparison between the arithmetic means of the study sample’s estimates about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three domains individually, according to the intermediate variables.

tab 8

The results related to table (21) showed that there are statistically significant differences between the arithmetic means of the study sample’s estimates about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three domains individually, due to the gender variable and in favor of females. Accordingly, the sex variable has a statistically significant effect that explains 3%, 2.4%, and 2.8% of the variation in the estimates of originality, fluency, and flexibility, respectively. And there are statistically significant differences between the arithmetic means of the study sample’s estimates about the creativity level of secondary school teachers in the three domains individually; Attributable to the job title variable, in favor of managers. Accordingly, the job title variable had a statistically significant effect that explained 4.4%, 2.6%, and 3.5% of the variation in the estimates of originality, fluency, and flexibility, respectively. While there are no statistically significant differences between the arithmetic means of the study sample’s estimates of the study sample’s estimates about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three domains individually, due to the variables of educational qualification and experience.

To determine the statistical significance of the differences between the arithmetic averages of the study sample’s estimates about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three domains combined (total), according to the intermediate variables, Four-way ANOVA was used, and Table (22) shows that (Table 9).

Table 9: The results of the quaternary analysis of variance for the comparison between the arithmetic means of the study sample’s estimates about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three domains combined (total), according to the intermediate variables.

tab 9

The results related to table (22) showed that there is a statistically significant difference between the two arithmetic averages of the study sample’s estimates about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three fields combined (total), according to the gender variable, in favor of females, and explains 3% of the variance in estimates.

The results also showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the two arithmetic averages of the study sample’s estimates about the creativity level of secondary school teachers in the three domains combined (total), according to the job title variable, and in favor of principals, and explains 3.8% of the variation in the study sample’s estimates about the creativity level of teachers. Secondary schools in the three fields combined (total).

The results also showed that there were no statistically significant differences in the estimates of the study sample about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers due to the impact of the educational qualification and experience variables.

Discussion of the Results and Recommendations

This chapter deals with a discussion of the findings of the study, which aimed to reveal the degree to which secondary school principals in the northern region within Israel practice organizational conflict management strategies and their relationship to the level of creativity among teachers. It was organized in the light of its questions as follows:

Discussing the results related to answering the first question: “What is the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the northern region inside Israel from the point of view of principals and teachers?”

To answer this question, arithmetic means, standard deviations, and rankings were calculated for the study sample’s estimates of the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the northern region in Israel from the point of view of principals and teachers. The results showed that all domains came with an average degree, where the estimates for the field of flexibility came in the first place with a medium degree, and the estimates for the field of fluency came in the second place with a medium degree, and the estimates for the field of originality came in the third place with a medium degree, and the arithmetic average of the estimates of the study sample for the fields of creativity combined was a degree Medium.

The researcher attributes this result to the fact that flexibility, which means the ability to change the state of mind by changing the situation, and includes the diversity or difference of ideas that the creative individual brings, may have become an acquired skill for many teachers by virtue of technological progress, the spread of informatics, and the ease of obtaining information through the Internet. And others, which made it easier for teachers to diversify in using new creative methods, and move away from traditional methods, which were based on indoctrination, and follow inherited patterns in presenting information and presenting study materials, but the presence of some old teachers in particular, who still apply traditional methods, especially Which they experienced themselves, in addition to their lack of interest in modern technological means, make the estimates about the field of resilience come in an average degree. As for the arrival of the field of originality in the last rank, the researcher attributes it to the tasks that teachers have to accomplish at certain times, such as finishing courses and exam dates, which may lead teachers to rely on successful traditional methods and avoid applying new ideas.

This result agreed with the result of the study of Mazhar & Akhtar, 2018, which showed that the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in Lahore, Pakistan was average, and the result of the study of Adigüzel & Okçu, 2021, which showed that the level of creativity of teachers in secondary schools in Turkey was average. The result differed with the result of the study, whose results showed that the level of creative behavior among public school teachers in Israel was high, and the result of the study [22], which showed that the level of creativity among Indonesian secondary school teachers was high, and the result of the Qaddumi study [23], which showed that the level of creativity among teachers of outstanding students in public schools in Jordan was high, and the result of Al-Qahtani’s study, which showed that the level of Islamic education teachers’ practice of creative thinking skills in secondary schools in Kuwait was high, and the result of Al-Issa study, which It showed that the level of creativity among teachers in basic schools in Mafraq Education was high. The researcher discussed the areas of the creativity level of the teachers separately, as follows:

Domain of Flexibility

The results related to this field showed that the estimates of the study sample for the field of flexibility came in a medium degree, as paragraph No. (13) and its text “takes the initiative to adopt new ideas” came in the first place with a medium degree, while paragraph No. (12) came and its text “accepts unfamiliar job tasks” Ranked last, with a moderate degree. The researcher attributes this result to an awareness of the importance of flexibility in terms of acceptance of new ideas. Relying on old ideas may generate failure in managing the situation, or stereotypes in managing it, which may not produce acceptable results, given the changes in our contemporary world. What was previously acceptable may It is not acceptable at the present time, and what was strange in the past may seem familiar at the present time, and since the managers are often from the old generation, there are those who realize that there are new ideas that they may not have tested, so they accept and adopt those ideas, and there are those who insist On the old ideas that they lived and tested, a time here the estimates were average. While the researcher attributes the advent of Paragraph No. (12) in the last place to the great burdens and the many tasks borne by the principals and the school staff, which may be an obstacle in front of them in accepting unfamiliar tasks, which take them time and effort, and may not be feasible, and fraught with failure.

Domain of Fluency

The results related to this field showed that the estimates of the study sample for the field of fluency came in a medium degree, as Paragraph No. (16) and its text “Innovate solutions to deal with problems” came in the first place with a medium degree, while Paragraph No. (19) and its text “Avoids routine teaching methods Ranked last, with a moderate degree.

The researcher attributes this result to the commitment of teachers to the curricula prescribed by the Ministry, and setting tasks at specific times, which may constitute an obstacle for many in trying to devise solutions or new methods, whether in solving problems, or presenting the study material, and here the teachers resort to using methods that have been tested and tried, They avoid inventing new solutions, as their innovation in finding new solutions to deal with problems may be limited to what they have no previous experience in dealing with. As for the advent of Paragraph No. (19) in the last place, it can be attributed to the introduction of modern technological tools such as computers and the Internet, which made it easier for teachers to learn about new ways and methods of teaching that were not known to them before, and it can also be attributed to what the technologies provided. Modern materials such as films and interactive programs, which are easily accessible, and contribute to facilitating the work of the teacher.

Domain of Originality

The results related to this field showed that the estimates of the study sample for the field of originality came in a medium degree, as paragraph No. He answers questions in an unusual way” in the last rank and to a medium degree. The researcher attributes this result to the fact that originality, with what it means in terms of moving away from traditional ideas, and trying to find new creative ideas, a person must try to learn about the experiences of others first; This is so that he can get acquainted with their ideas and experiences, because the idea that comes to a person’s mind may have occurred to others before him, and they applied it, and they have sufficient information about the extent of its success or failure, and from here, if a person wants to implement a creative idea, he must first benefit from The experiences and experiences of others, and this is what is done through cooperation, advice and exchange of ideas between teachers, and since this matter may not always be possible; Because there is a difference in the nature of each subject, whether at the level of teaching, or to solve a problem or conflict within the institution due to the different personalities, circumstances and environment of each school, we find that the estimates were average. As for paragraph No. (3) coming last, the researcher attributes it to the ability of some to quickly find alternatives, which requires great intelligence and expertise.

Discussing the results related to the answer to the second question: Are there statistically significant differences at the level of significance (α=0.05) in the responses of the study sample about the creativity level of secondary school teachers in the northern region inside Israel due to the effect of the variables (Gender, educational qualification, experience, job title)?

The results related to this question showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the two arithmetic averages of the study sample’s estimates about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three areas combined (total), according to the gender variable, in favor of females. The researcher attributes this result to the interest of female teachers in the fields of creativity more than that of male teachers. This is because male teachers have more preoccupations due to family, social and material pressures, which push many of them to search for jobs in addition to their work in school to provide material income that helps them bear the burdens of life, which reduces their time devoted to creativity in their profession as teachers. The reason can also be attributed to the fact that females have a greater ability to persevere and seek creativity than males who prefer to complete their tasks in haste, which reduces the degree of proficiency. The result differed with the result of Nasser’s study, which showed that there were statistically significant differences in the level of creative behavior among public school teachers in Israel due to the effect of the gender variable in favor of males, and the result of the Mazhar and Akhtar study [24], which showed that there was no Statistically significant differences in the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in Lahore, Pakistan, due to the effect of the gender variable, and the result of the Qaddumi study , which showed that there were no statistically significant differences in the level of creativity among teachers of outstanding students in public schools in Jordan due to the effect of the gender variable, and the result of Al-Qahtani’s study which showed that there were no statistically significant differences about the level of Islamic education teachers’ practice of creative thinking skills in secondary schools in Kuwait due to the effect of the gender variable, and the result of Al-Issa’s study, which showed that there were no statistically significant differences about the level of creativity of teachers in basic schools In Mafraq education, it is attributed to the effect of the gender variable, and as a result of the study of Adigüzel & Okçu , which showed that there are statistically significant differences in the level of creativity of teachers in secondary schools in Turkey due to the effect of the gender variable in favor of males [25-63].

The results also showed that there was no statistically significant difference between the two arithmetic averages of the study sample’s estimates about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three areas combined (total), according to the variables of educational qualification and experience.

The researcher attributes this result to the fact that teachers of different academic levels and experiences seek creativity, and try to overcome the difficulties that impede the performance of their tasks, and therefore they try to use technological tools, discuss and exchange experiences, and try to apply all that is new in order to achieve creativity. The result agreed with the result of the Mazhar & Akhtar study=, which showed that there were no statistically significant differences in the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in Lahore, Pakistan, due to the effect of the educational qualification variable, and the result of Al-Issa study, which showed that there were no statistically significant differences. On the level of creativity of teachers in basic schools in Mafraq Education due to the effect of the educational qualification variable.

The result differed with the result of Nasser’s study, which showed that there were statistically significant differences in the level of creative behavior among public school teachers in Israel due to the impact of the educational qualification variable in favor of bachelor’s holders, and the result of the Qaddumi study, which showed that there were statistically significant differences. The level of creativity among teachers of outstanding students in public schools in Jordan is attributed to the effect of the educational qualification variable in favor of the “Bachelor” category.

The result also agreed with the result of the Mazhar & Akhtar study, which showed that there were no statistically significant differences in the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in Lahore, Pakistan, due to the effect of the variable years of experience, and the result of the Qaddumi study, which showed that there were no significant differences. Statistically, the level of creativity among teachers of outstanding students in public schools in Jordan is due to the effect of the variable of years of experience, and the result of Al-Issa’s study (2020), which showed that there were no statistically significant differences about the level of creativity of teachers in basic schools in Mafraq Education due to the effect of the variable of experience.

The result also differed with the result of Nasser’s study, which showed that there were statistically significant differences in the level of creative behavior among public school teachers in Israel due to the effect of the variable years of experience in favor of the “ten years and less” category, and the result of Adigüzel & Okçu’s study. , which showed that there are statistically significant differences in the level of creativity of teachers in secondary schools in Turkey due to the effect of the experience variable in favor of the category “more than ten years”. The results also showed that there was a statistically significant difference between the two arithmetic averages of the study sample’s estimates about the level of creativity of secondary school teachers in the three domains combined (total), according to the job title variable, and in favor of principals. The researcher attributes the presence of differences due to the job title variable in favor of the managers, perhaps because the managers have an interest in evaluating their workers, and therefore they care about the points of distinction and creativity and follow the teachers in this aspect; To be able to evaluate their subordinates fairly.

Recommendations

In light of the results, the study recommends the following:

Encouraging principals to create a sound school environment free of conflict, due to its positive effects in increasing creativity among teachers, and holding training courses for principals and teachers within the school.
Giving principals greater freedom in running the affairs of their schools, easing the burdens on teachers to increase their creativity, encouraging principals to exercise justice and shouldering responsibilities, and providing means of comfort for teachers so that they can devote more time to their work and school, and creativity in that.
Providing technological tools in schools because of their impact on facilitating tasks, increasing creativity among teachers, improving their performance, and conducting more studies that look at creativity in other societies.

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A Case Report of Dicephalus Parapagus Conjoint Twins: Declined Caesarean Section for Obstructed Labour; Fetal Death in Utero and Successful Vaginal Delivery

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DOI: 10.31038/AWHC.2023632

Conjoint Twins

Conjoint twins result from monozygotic twins incompletely separated and born physically connected, and this occurs when an early embryo only partially separate to form two developing foetuses.

The Types of conjoint twin depends on when and where non-separation occurred. They are called Thoracopagus if non-separation occurred at the chest; Omphalopagus if it occurred in the abdomen, Pyopagus if it occurred at the base of the spine: Rachipagus if it occurred at the whole length of the spine; Ischiopagus if it occurred at the pelvis; Parapagus if it occurred at the spine and Craniopagus if occurred at the head [1]. Conjoint twins are rare, occurring in 1: 50,000-60,000 births and approximately 70 percent are females and mostly born stillbirths.

Case Report

We present a case of Dicephalus parapagus; conjoint twins with two separate heads. PA, is a 27 years old gravida 3, para 1+1 admitted in labour at a village health center after several hours of labour in a traditional birth attendant’s home. She is a housewife, moslem, educated to first school leaving certificate and she registered late for ante natal care with an unknown LMP as she couldn’t remember her last menstrual period nor could she afford a booking ultra-sound scan, so her gestational age was unknown.

On examination, her fundal height was term size; multiple fetal parts were felt and the babies were in cephalic presentation but no fetal heart activity was heard. Vaginal examination revealed a fully dilated cervix and the presenting part of the baby was at the pelvic spines without moulding but the obstruction was at the level of the pelvic brim, due to the second fetal head.

She was resuscitated with intravenous fluid. Blood investigations were arranged including group and save serum and she was prepared for an emergency caesarean section. She declined the operation of emergency caesarean section in spite of detailed explanation and persuasion involving the elderly relatives invited to speak with her including counselling from ourselves. She was weepy and said she will not have an ‘operation’ for a baby no longer alive.

It was concluded by the staffs to assist her as much as possible in her decision. A telephone consultation was made with an experienced Obstetrician who was able to guide the staffs to achieve a vaginal delivery without traumatic injury to her genital tract.

The Manouvre to Deliver the Dicephalus Parapagus Conjoint Twins

She was placed in the lithotomy position and the bladder was emptied. The Pelvic examination was repeated. The presenting head was in occipito-anterior position in a roomy pelvis. There was no caput or moulding and as the parturient was contracting about 3: 10 with involuntary pushing, the fetal head was becoming visible but disappears after every uterine contraction and bearing down. It was also observed that the second twin head descended simultaneously with the head of twin one, so conjoint twins or interlocking twins were suspected.

At the following contractions, she was asked to bear down with uterine activity. When the presenting head was in +2 position, an assistant was requested to put pressure on the second head in a downward and forward direction.

On the third attempt, the second head slipped into the pelvic cavity and the head of twin 1 crowned and it was delivered from a meconium-stained liquor after a medio-lateral episiotomy. The diagnosis of a conjoint twin was confirmed. It was a fresh stillbirth. The cord was clamped and the placenta delivered by controlled cord traction.

The blood loss was minimal with prompt suturing of the episiotomy. The lower genital tract was examined and found to be intact. The urine was clear of blood.

The twin had two heads joined at the neck, one trunk, two upper limbs one on either side and two lower limbs with meconium staining of the vernix caseosa covering her skin Figure 1.

Figure 1: Vernix Caseosa

Discussions

Dicephalus parapagus is a rare form of conjoint twins with two separate heads and accounts for about 11% of all conjoint twins which was some time ago referred to as Siamese twins named after conjoint twin that survived to adulthood in Siam in Thailand with two heads and one body.

This parturient has no twining family history or use of medications with teratogenic side effects in early pregnancy. The gestational age at presentation was unknown because the LMP was unknown and no early scan was done.

Her first pregnancy was uneventful and she had a spontaneous vaginal delivery of a normal male child. The following pregnancy was a miscarriage at about 13 week’s gestation with no known cause.

On presentation there was no fetal heart activity detected using the Pinnard’s stethoscope so it was possible to deliver the baby as it was done so this method is not recommended for a viable baby.

The bladder was continuously emptied to prevent injury to it and to increase the pelvic capacity as a full bladder will be obstructive.

The size of the babies contributed to the successful outcome of the delivery as clinically the babies were preterm at about 32-34 weeks gestational size. Most conjoint twins are delivered by caesarean section except they are miscarriage as reported in literature of a 20 years old who delivered a conjoint triplet spontaneously in early pregnancy [2,3]. The normal vaginal delivery without surgical insult to the integrity of the uterus will prevent the risk of rupture of the uterus in subsequent pregnancy if she declines hospital delivery.

Conjoint twins warrant doing basic investigation like ultrasound scan in utero, total body x-ray or preferably a magnetic resonance imaging scan to determine the nature of the bony spine. These investigations were not done in this case as this happened in a rural setting.

References

Conjoint Twins in Diseases & Conditions; Mayo Clinic Family Health Book; 5^th Edition Dec. 16 2021.
Ido Solt, Lowenstein L, Okopnik M, Sheinin O, Drugan A (2005) Malformed pygopagus conjoined twins in a spontaneous triplet pregnancy. Harefuah 144: 590-592. [crossref]
Karn M, Mahato B, Sah P, Basnet A, Yonghang S, et al. (2021) Dicephalus parapagus conjoint twins. Clinical case reports 9: e04663. [crossref]

Efficacy and Safety of Low-Level Long-Wave Ultrasonic Stimulator for Dementia with Lewy Bodies and Parkinson’s Disease (Is the Dolphin Wave Effective for Neurodegenerative Diseases in the Brain!)

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DOI: 10.31038/JCRM.2023622

Introduction

In 2004, we started research and development of a head ultrasonic stimulator and confirmed the safety in a non-clinical test. After that, we confirmed an increase in cerebral blood flow in humans, and proceeded to Phase 2 clinical trials. It will be planned to move to Phase 3 clinical trials. Kamiyama, Ltd. focused on the 30,000 Hz frequency band emitted by the dolphin and developed a head ultrasonic stimulator. It was developed based on the concept of vibrating capillaries and nerve cells with weak long-wave ultrasound.

The acoustic action frequency of medical equipment shall comply with JIS (Japanese Industrial Standards) T0601-2-5 (IEC 61689). “IEC 61689：1996, Ultrasonics-Physiotherapy requirements and methods of measurement in the frequency range 0.5 MHz to 5 MHz”. The ultrasonic frequency of the device is 30 KHz (0.03 MHz), which is non-standard ultrasonic. The wavelength in the body (simulated in water) is about 5 cm, and when stimulated from the forehead, it passes through the skull in 4-5 waves. The ultrasonic wave of 30 KHz have a low attenuation rate and is characterized by good penetration into the body. For capillaries and nerve cells of several micrometers, it is considered possible to vibrate with an energy of several microwatts/cm². The ultrasonic intensity is approximately 1/100,000 or less of the intensity at which cavitation occurs.

It seems possible to transmit weak ultrasonic waves to capillaries and nerve cells in the brain without generating bubbles. It was confirmed that the device increases the cerebral blood flow with minute vibrations caused by approximately 7.2 million waves (pressure change) in 20 minutes of pulse stimulation.

The below are five papers on the efficacy and safety of non-clinical and clinical studies:

1) Sound Field Measurement in the Skull Model

The intensity of the sound generated in water by the 30 kHz ultrasonic transducer was 1/1,875 when compared with the maximum standard of JIS ultrasonic therapy equipment. In addition, the acoustic intensity in the skull model was 22 μW/cm² or less, and the safety was confirmed.

2) Cerebral Blood Flow Promotion Effect

In clinical trial in healthy adults, the cerebral blood flow increased by approximately 10% to 15% after stimulation compared to before stimulation.

3) Clinical Trial for Patients with the Dementia with Lewy Body

In 12 patients, there was significant improvement in severity (NPI-Q) and Parkinsonian symptoms on the real device compared to the sham device.

4) Clinical Trial for Dementia Patients

Four patients with dementia with Lewy body and two patients with dementia of the Alzheimer’s type used the device for 12 weeks in combination with drugs. Improvements were shown on the NPI-Q and MMSE.

5) Report of one Case of Parkinson’s Disease Symptoms

The patient used the device in combination with medication. Improvements were observed in cognitive impairment and Parkinson’s symptoms, and the burden on caregivers was greatly reduced.

The Below are the Abstracts of Each Paper

1. The vibrator has a bimorph disk structure made of piezoelectric ceramics, and the vibrating energy is taken out from the center while the vibrator is held at the periphery [1]. The vibrating surface is made of ABS resin with a diameter of 28 mm (Figure 1), and is built into a hair band (Figure 2) and used in close contact with the head. Ultrasonic properties in medical devices are to be measured in water. The absorption of sound in water (in the body) is proportional to the square of the frequency, indicating that low frequencies propagate farther. The speed of sound propagating in the human body is approximately 1,500 m/s, which is equivalent to the propagation speed in water. The ultrasound frequency was set to 30 kHz, and the internal wavelength was 1,500 m/30 kHz=5 cm. The distribution of the sound intensity generated from the vibrating surface in water showed a conical shape (Figure 3), with a maximum of 1.6 mW/cm² at the center of the vibrating surface. The transducer surface was a disk-shaped disk, and the average output from the emitting surface was 0.71 mW/cm². Effective radiant power was obtained from the following formula. Effective radiant power=(radiating surface average power) x (radiating area)=(0.71 mW/cm²) x (n(1.4 cm)²)=4.4 mW. Acoustic distribution in the resin skull model was measured. The maximum output was simultaneously applied to the transducers attached to the outside of the frontal and occipital regions. Sound levels in the model were 3 μW/cm² frontal, 22 μW/cm² posterior foramen magnum, and 8 μW/cm² occipital. The center area was mountain-shaped compared to the surrounding area, showing approximately five times the strength. When the acoustic vibration was applied to the skull, it was observed that it gathered in the brainstem.

Figure 1: Vibrator

Figure 2: Sound pressure distribution

Figure 3: Wearing

2. We investigated the changes in cerebral blood flow using a transcranial weak ultrasonic vibration stimulator with high-penetration long-wave ultrasound (30 kHz, 2 mW/cm² or less) [2]. Stimulation of only the frontal region showed an increase of about 10% in blood flow throughout the brain in the X-ray CT image of Xe gas (Figure 4). Approximately 15% increase in cerebral blood flow (Figure 5) was observed in SPECT images with combined stimulation from the frontal and occipital regions (Figure 6).

Figure 4: Upper: Before, Lower: After

Figure 5: L: Before, C: after R: difference

Figure 6: Change rate of UPDRS-III (Total score)

3. A comparative clinical trial was conducted on 12 patients using the sham device and an actual device [3]. The primary endpoints were significant improvement in the severity of Behavioral and Psychological Symptoms of Dementia (NPI-Q) and caregiver burden (8 and 12 weeks later). As for the secondary endpoints, significant improvement was observed in the nursing care burden assessment Zarit-8 (Figure 7), and significant improvement was also observed in the cognitive function test “MMSE” (after 8 weeks). It also improved Parkinson’s symptoms associated with dementia with Lewy bodies. No adverse events were observed.

Figure 7: Change rate of ZARIT8 (Total score)

4. A total of 6 cases of dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and 2 cases of Alzheimer Type Dementia (ATD) were used for a total of 12 weeks in a 12-week clinical trial. Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) was used for cognitive function evaluation, and Neuropsychiatric Inventory Questionnaire (NPI-Q) was used for BPSD [4]. As a result, in 6 cases of MMSE and 5 cases of NPI-Q, improvements in cognitive function, psychiatric symptoms, patient severity, and caregiver burden were confirmed.

5. A 12-week clinical trial was conducted on a patient with Parkinson’s symptoms (Stage 4) in combination with drugs [5]. It was effective in treating cognitive impairment and Parkinson’s symptoms, had a high immediate effect, and was able to reduce the burden on caregivers. Wheelchair-bound patients with strong Parkinson’s symptoms can now walk with assistance.

References

Okano S, Shimotori Y (2015) Measurement of sound field of ultrasound massager for the head in skull model: Iiryo kiki gaku 85: 14-21.
Okano S, Shimotori Y, et al. (2015) Changes of Cerebral Blood Flow by the Weak Trans-Cranial Ultrasound Irradiation in Healthy Adult Volunteers: Japanese Journal of Complementally and Alternative Medicine 12: 73-78.
Manabe Y, Shimotori Y (2023) A clinical study on the efficacy and safety of the head ultrasonic stimulator Ultra-Ma for patients with clinically diagnosed dementia with Lewy bodies: Clinical Study Report.
FujiiI H, Shimotori Y, et al. (2021) Reduction of dementia symptoms by weak transcranial ultrasound therapy. Japan Society for Dementia Prevention 11: 49-57.
FujiiI H, Shimotori Y (2022) Effects of Transcranial Weak Ultrasonic Stimulation on Parkinson’s Symptoms – Consideration Focused on Cognitive Function Tests Japanese Journal of Complementally and Alternative Medicine 19.

Sustainable Management of Ecosystem and Control of Natural Secondary Disaster in Soil and Water Loss Regions

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DOI: 10.31038/GEMS.2023534

Abstract

Water and soil resources are the foundation of Agriculture high-quality development. Water and soil loss is a serious natural secondary disaster and affects the redistribution of Water and soil resources and land productivity. Soil and water conservation influence high-quality development. After about one hundred years of efforts, soil and water conservation has developed rapidly, for example in China, the surface runoff and soil loss in soil and water loss areas have decreased rapidly. The people’s living conditions have gradually improved as economy and society development. Now, economy and society development enter a new time, people living level increase and put forward higher requirements for soil and water conservation because the current efficiency of soil and water conservation cannot meet people’s higher requirements. In this paper, a new theory of soil and water conservation developed. The results shows that soil and water losses refer to the process of transferring soil and water resources from one place to another, and the consequences of these losses can be divided into positive and negative effects on high quality development. Soil and water conservation is not only the use of some methods or measures to reduce soil erosion to soil allowable loss requirements, but also to make efficient use of soil and water resources. The construction standard of soil and water conservation measures must be based on the allowable amount of soil erosion and be applied using spatially optimal allocation, and the high-quality sustainable management of soil and water conservation should be made to ensure regional ecological security and realize the high quality and sustainable development of soil and water conservation.

Keywords

Soil and water loss, Soil and water conservation, Food and ecological security, Soil and water conservation measure, Most optimum distribution of resources, Sustainable development

Introduction

Neotectonic movement is tectonic change occurring in the Tertiary and thereafter, and is characterized by vertical and horizontal movement. Under the influence of many natural background factors, such as mountainous terrain and unstable monsoon precipitation, formed by intense neotectonic movement, as well as the long history of agricultural development and the large population, China has become one of the countries with the most serious soil erosion, notably on the Loess Plateau .Water and soil loss affects the carbon and nitrogen cycles of terrestrial ecosystems, vegetation ecosystem products and services, the ecological environment and economic development, and ultimately the quality of life and sustainable development of the public. Over the past 100 years, great progress has been made in the work of soil and water conservation in China with the unremitting efforts of the vast number of soil and water conservation workers. For example, as evidenced by the establishment of the State Key Laboratory of Soil Erosion and Dryland Agriculture in Yangling, China, the concept of cover degree and cover rate of water conservation forest has been developed [1,2]. The degree of vegetation coverage is the percentage of the total area covered by the vertical projection area of the tree canopies, and the vegetation cover rate is the proportion of high-quality grassland or forestland area of the total land area in a region or a country. The vegetation coverage includes the effective cover degree, critical degree, and potential coverage [3,4]. The establishment of a large area of soil and water conservation vegetation has been established in the area of in the area of soil and water loss region, such as water conservation forest (or vegetation), Windproof and sand-fixing forest, water source conservation forest, and adult forest construction standards and their construction scale and suitable developmemt scale have also been established; the effective coverage rate of wind-proof sand forest, of water conservation forest, and of water conservation forest [1-9], the theory of soil water resources utilization limit by plants and the soil moisture vegetation bearing capacity appeared in 2000 [3,4,9,10]. However, due to the lag in theoretical research, construction standards of soil and water conservation measures are low with small range of water conservation measures, the spatial allocation of soil and water conservation measures is unreasonable, the work of soil and water conservation attaches importance to quantity and not quality, and its efficiency is low, which cannot meet the modern needs of high-quality development of soil and water conservation. Such incidents as drought, forest fires, extreme weather and precipitation, hurricanes, and flash floods lead to widespread erosion of soil and water conservation vegetation, collapse of dams and other incidents, resulting in serious soil erosion, destruction of farmland, villages, roads, and vehicles, which affects transportation, food and ecological security, and cause large losses to the state and society. In order to overcome these difficulties, promote the high-quality development of soil and water conservation, and meet current requirements of the public for soil and water conservation, it is necessary to develop a new theory of soil and water conservation. Through comprehensive analysis of relevant literature, a new theory of soil and water conservation is proposed. The purpose of the paper is to better understand the new theory of soil and water conservation and carry out High-quality sustainable development of soil and water conservation. The main content as the followings [11].

Soil and Water Loss

Soil erosion is a natural phenomenon, and it originated in China as a technical term in the early 20th century [12], where it was applied to the Northwestern Loess Plateau [13]. The forces that cause soil and water loss are called external soil and water loss forces, including water, wind, temperature (freeze–thaw) and son on. The term erosion has long been used in geology, mostly to express the flattening due to external force, and soil erosion was first mentioned in the book of Kozmenko in 1909 [12]. It was then widely used and was introduced into China in the 1930s. Soil erosion refers to the whole process of soil and its parent material, as well as the destruction, stripping, transport, and deposition of surface components of the land under external forces such as hydraulic, wind, freeze-thaw, and gravity [12]. Water power is the force produced by the flow of water and wind is the magnitude of the force that air exerts on an object. Temperature is the measure of the average translational kinetic energy of the molecular motion, and is the collective expression of molecular thermal motion. At present, people’s understanding of water and soil loss is not uniform. It has been argued that soil erosion refers to the destruction and loss of soil and water resources and land productivity under the action of external forces, including surface erosion and soil erosion; most believe that water and soil loss is equivalent to soil erosion, i.e., soil erosion by hydraulic, wind, or gravity erosion, resulting in soil dispersion, transport, and accumulation processes. However, we are entering a new period. In order to promote the high-quality development of soil and water conservation in this new period, we should first unify the understanding of water and soil loss. The water and soil loss are the process of soil and water resources transferring from one place to another, which includes both generalized and narrow-sense soil erosion. Generalized water and soil loss refers to the process of carbon and nitrogen cycle, land productivity, and ecological environment change caused by the transfer of soil and water resources induced by external forces. Water and soil loss in the narrow sense is equivalent to soil erosion [14].

Consequences of Soil and Water Loss

The influence of Water and soil loss on high-quality development of soil and water conservation can be divided into positive and negative effects as follows:

Water and Soil Loss Leads to Decline or Even Loss of Soil Fertility and Land Productivity in the Water and Soil Loss Regions

The term soil fertility refer to the capability of soil to support plant production in agricultural contexts [15]. Serious water and soil loss will affect carbon and nitrogen cycles in agriculture ecological systems and result in surface soil thinning of fertile soil in the water and soil loss region, and decreases in cultivated land area, soil fertility, and crop [16].

Soil Erosion Affects People’s Daily Activities

Water and soil loss destroys house, farmland, roads, bridge and silts up rivers, lakes, and reservoirs, which affects People’s Daily activities. Floods, landslides, mudslides, and other serious soil erosion results in siltation of channels, lakes, and reservoirs.

Water and Soil Loss Pollution Water Quality and Affects Ecological Balance

Water and soil loss accelerates non-point source pollution. When heavy rain happens, strong surface runoff will pile up surface garbage into rivers, seriously affecting their water quality and irrigation. A typical example is the poor water quality of the Yangtze River.

Typhoons, Haze, Dust, and Dust Storms Affect People’s Health, Travel, and Social Activities

As the economy and society develops, people are increasingly interested in health, and travel and social activities are becoming more frequent, while typhoons, haze, dust-raising weather, and dust storms affect flights and road traffic, and seriously hinder people’s rapid travel and social activities.

Water and Soil Loss Accelerates the Formation of Unique Landforms and Promotes the Development of Eco-tourism

Soil and rock through hydraulic, wind, freeze/thaw, and joint action of other external forces form a number of magic, wonderful natural landscapes, which raise living standards and accelerate the high-quality sustainable development of eco-tourism. For example, there are some famous eco-tourism sites such as Keshiketeng stone array scenic spots in the northeast of Keshiketeng County, Danxia natural scenic spots in Yulin city, and Zhashui cave in the Qinling Mountains. Zhashui cave is the result of long-term dissolution of groundwater. Calcium carbonate in limestone forms micro-soluble calcium bicarbonate under the action of water and carbon dioxide. Because the limestone layer contains different lime quality with different erosion degrees, it is gradually dissolved and divided into independent, diverse, steep and beautiful peaks, and caves in a strange landscape, which promotes eco-tourism and local economic development. Hukou waterfall was a Hukou waterfall but now has become a tourist hot spot.

Water and Soil Loss Forms Silt Plains and Expands Land Area in Estuaries

A large amount of sediment is deposited in estuary areas, over time forming silt plains and expanding the land area, which increase nitrogen density in soil, soil fertility, land production, and carbon dioxide fixation; for example, Chongming Island at the mouth of the Yangtze River and the Huanghe Delta at the mouth of the Yellow River. Chongming Island was originally only a small sand dune and, as more sand was deposited, the sand dunes grew larger and became an island where fishermen lived.

Soil and water conservation workers should broaden their horizons, make best use of the advantages of water and soil loss and bypass the disadvantages of water and soil loss. Thus, they can meet the requirements of rapid and high quality economic and social development, especially to strengthen the prediction and prevention of serious soil erosion phenomena caused by typhoons and haze caused by strong winds, dust-raising weather, and sandstorms.

Soil and Water Conservation

Soil and water conservation refers to the use of certain measures and technologies to reduce the loss of soil and water to a certain goal, i.e., soil allowable loss, to make efficient use of soil and water resources in the process of water and soil loss and increase the ecological, economic, and social benefits of soil and water resources in the soil and water loss system to provide high quality products and services for social development and to maximize the safety of the life and property [14]. Soil and water conservation makes rational use of soil and water resources to achieve sustainable development. For example, introduction of flood irrigation with high sediment concentration to form high-quality farmland using water sources of rivers, lakes, and reservoirs in the sand area; drawing water by gravity or by machinery; washing sand dunes using hydraulic power, and carrying sand to positions to form high quality farmland, or using runoff and topography to promote eco-tourism, such as the Shapotou and Hukou tourist attractions in the Loess Plateau. Soil and water conservation measures can effectively conserve soil and water [17]. These measures include engineering measures, farming and biological measures for soil and water conservation. In the restoration of vegetation, natural forces can be used to restore vegetation in uninhabited areas; however, in areas where there is a population, artificial interference should be used to restore vegetation in order to create the vegetation ecosystem goods and services to meet the needs of human production and life. Over the past 100 years, with the unremitting efforts of the vast number of soil and water conservation workers, China has made great progress in its work on soil and water conservation. A large area of soil and water conservation vegetation has been established in water and soil loss areas, and a large number of reservoirs have been built; some water and soil conservation measures such as water and soil conservation projects including dams or levees have been set up along the tributaries of the Yellow River and other soil erosion areas, which have made great progress in controlling water and soil loss below the allowable amount and promoting regional economic development. However, due to the lag in theoretical research on soil and water conservation, the construction standard of soil and water conservation measures is low and imperfect, and the spatial allocation of soil and water conservation measures is not balanced. For example, silt storage dams for farmland buildings have played important roles in preventing floods, consolidating the return of farmland to forests or grassland, safeguarding ecological security and food security, and promoting the development of economy and social stability. However, in construction of silt storage dams, the problems of low-quality construction, serious disease-risk dam, and poor management of reconstruction, especially concerning the large number of small dams, have not received enough attention [18]. Therefore, it is urgent to strengthen the study of soil allowable loss on different underlying surfaces, formulate high quality and strict standards for soil and water conservation engineering and vegetation construction, and carry out spatial optimal allocation to obtain maximum soil and water conservation efficiency. The space optimal configuration is expressed by the spatial optimal configuration coefficient. Spatial optimal allocation coefficient indicates that, in a water and soil loss area or watershed, soil and water conservation funds or measures may have different allocation methods; these different allocation methods result in different soil and water conservation efficiency, i.e., different surface runoff and soil loss. The optimal allocation of space is the allocation that results in maximum soil and water conservation efficiency.

High-quality and Sustainable Management of Soil and Water Conservation

In order to achieve high-quality and sustainable development of soil and water conservation, it is necessary to implement high-quality and sustainable management of soil and water conservation measures, reduce or even eliminate unsafe traffic accidents and loss of life and money accidents caused by serious soil and water loss, reduce dam dyke damage and flood dam overturn caused by inadequate design, material fatigue, rodent damage and piping, and continue to achieve the maximum efficiency of soil and water conservation. The high-quality sustainable management approach for soil and water conservation includes: Based on the external forces of soil and water loss, the temporal and spatial changes of soil and water loss, and the requirements of residents, we should improve the anti-erosion standards of infrastructure such as homes, roads, Bridges, levees and DAMS, improve the design and construction standards of soil and water conservation measures, and optimize spatial allocation to avoid soil and water conservation from exacerbating ecological security. At the same time, the prediction of extreme weather such as sandstorm, tornado, heavy rainfall, earthquake and other geological disasters should be strengthened, and Beidou satellite, UAV and other monitoring equipment should be used to dynamically monitor key sites prone to geological disasters. The corresponding emergency plan for high-quality sustainable management of soil and water conservation should be formulated, and the emergency plan should be launched immediately in case of disasters. According to the theory of resource utilization limit and the theory of vegetation carrying capacity, the utilization limit of soil water resources and the vegetation carrying capacity of soil water in water shortage areas should be the limit of soil water resources utilization and the vegetation carrying capacity of soil water, and the high-quality sustainable management of soil and water conservation vegetation should be implemented to continuously obtain the maximum efficiency of soil and water conservation [14] to reduce loss of life and property.

Application Effect

Because of the large area of soil and water loss area, people’s understanding level of soil and water conservation is uneven, and the development of soil and water conservation work is unbalanced. In the areas with early understanding and high level of soil and water conservation, the new theory of soil and water conservation is practiced consciously to achieve high-quality sustainable development of soil and water conservation, and satisfactory results have been achieved. For example, we have been engaged in innovative research on soil and water conservation for many years, and carried out high-quality sustainable management of soil and water conservation vegetation for Caragana （Caragana Korshinskii） shrubland in the Guyuan experimental Station the semi-arid loess Hilly , Guyuan, China according to the theory of utilization limit of soil water resources and the theory of soil water and vegetation carrying capacity. In order to reduce soil water consumption in the dry season, the vegetation cover of Caragana Korshinskii forest should be kept at least 60% to ensure that the canopy coverage is not lower than the construction standard of soil and water conservation forest in the region. In the growing season, when the soil water resources in the soil depth ranged from land surface (0 cm) to maximum infiltration depth (290cm) decreased to the soil water resources utilization limit by plants of 212.7 mm, the plant water relationship entered the critical period of plant water relationship regulation. The end time of plant water relationship regulation is when the plant water relationship regulation period fails.

If plant density of soil and water conservation forest, expressed by goal tree species in the critical period of plant water relationship regulation is greater than soil water vegetation carrying capacity, timely plant water relationship regulation should be carried out according to the soil water vegetation carrying capacity, so as to ensure normal plant growth, prevent drought from leading to early deciduous leaves, dry shoot or death of caragana (Caragana Korshinskii ) before the rainy season, resulting in forest canopy intercession and disappearance, so as to continuously obtain maximum soil and water conservation efficiency. For the economic forest, such as red plum and apricot, firstly enlarge the tree pit and improve the quality of terrace according to local conditions, realize all the precipitation in situ infiltration, and reduce the soil and water loss to the allowable soil loss. At the same time, according to the local weather forecast, green house and high smoking at 1 meter above land surface measures were taken to prevent the damage of low temperature frost during the flowering and young fruit period in the period from late March to early May, and high efficiency cyhalothrin was adopted around May 20 to prevent the harm of eating worms. If the conservation density in the critical period of plant water relationship regulation exceeds the soil water vegetation carrying capacity, the plant water relationship in the critical period of plant water relationship regulation should be regulated first according to the right amount of leaf when the plant density is equal to the soil water vegetation carrying capacity, and then the vegetative growth and reproductive growth relationship should be regulated according to the right leaf amount in the carrying capacity and the leaf amount and quality fruit relationship to obtain the maximum yield and economic benefits, the income of red plum and apricot mu can reach more than 10,000 yuan [14]. Since 2017, the national high-quality red plum apricot demonstration base has been established on hilly land to demonstrate and promote high-quality production methods of red plum and apricot (Figure 1).

Figure 1: solar Power Plant (Dengkou, right photo)

After the founding of New China, Gao Zuyu, the secretary of Gaoxigou Village, Mizhi County, Yulin City, China，under the guidance of Mr. Tao Ke, carried out comprehensive management of soil and water conservation, such as silting dam, terraced fields and forest and grass vegetation construction. After years of continuous efforts, Gaoxigou Village has built a barren mountain gully with broken surface, serious soil and water loss into terraced mountain tops, pine and cypress contiguous pieces, soil loss is lower than the allowable soil loss, and efficient use of water and soil resources. Gaoxigou cultivated organic apples, e-commerce helps to develop ecological tourism, walk a variety of management. In 2020, the per capita income is 18,851 yuan, far exceeding the county’s average level (5,834 yuan), becoming a typical example of high-quality sustainable development of soil and water conservation in the area. The government of Hangjin Qi built diversion sluices, diversion channels, ecological levees, and drainage sluices connected with the main trunk channel to divert water from the Yellow River into the Kubuqi Desert and back water into the Yellow River. More than 200 million cubic meters of water were diverted in total, reducing runoff, sediment and siltation in the middle and lower reaches of the Yellow River, and forming a surface area of nearly 20km² and an ecological wetland of nearly 60km² in the Kubuqi Desert. Plants grow well, some water birds come to roost here, let the desert into an oasis wonder, aroused the attention of all countries, the diversion of water and sand control law let the world imitate.

State Power Investment Group Beijing Electric Power Co., Ltd. innovatively put forward the concept of “photovoltaic sand control and ecological restoration”. The Dengkou Industrial Park Management Committee of Bayannur City, Inner Mongolia cooperated with the State Power Investment to build the Dengkou photovoltaic sand control project. It not only reduces exposure to sunlight under photovoltaic solar panels and near-surface wind speed, promotes plant growth, and achieves good desertification control effect, but also obtains green and clean energy, which achieves good effect, as shown in the Figure. It is currently promoted in Gansu, Ningxia, Tibet, etc. Build wind power stations in tuyere areas to reduce wind and sand hazards [14]. The establishment of high-standard construction and water and soil conservation projects in soil erosion areas can not only avoid the harm of soil erosion, but also achieve good ecological, economic and social benefits, such as high-standard Hani terraces, e Guanyin Ge in Building in Yangzi river, Ezhou, Hubei Province, Dujiangyan and contemporary Three Gorges Dam, which have continuously given full play to the comprehensive benefits of flood control, irrigation, water transportation and social water use for two thousand years [14]. On the contrary, in the areas without the guidance of the new theory of soil and water conservation and the implementation of high-quality sustainable management, once encountered hurricanes, sandstorms and rainstorms, there will be serious dam collapse, dam collapse, flood destroyed houses, roads and farmland, and other serious events affecting high-quality development, resulting in the destruction of civil houses, roads, levees and storage DAMS. Car scrapping, human casualties and other serious events, such as in 2021 in many European countries, the United States and China’s Henan, Shanxi and Shaanxi provinces serious flood disaster. In 2022, severe soil and water events occurred in many parts of China, such as shaanxi, Shanxi and Henan province and Pakistan in 2022.

Acknowledgment

This project was supported by the National Key Research & Development Plan (Project No: 2016YFC0501702) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Project Nos: 41271539 and 41071193). We thank International Science Editing (http://www.internationalscienceediting.com) for editing the English language in the manuscript.

Competing Financial Interest Statement

There are no competing financial interests

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Differences in the Pandemic? Qualitative Study of Gender as a Social Determinant

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DOI: 10.31038/AWHC.2023631

Abstract

Life history factors have a significant role in disease development and coping, but have been given little consideration in the response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Based on a thorough analysis of oral history interviews from the initial phase of the pandemic, an investigation of the effects of COVID-19 on individual areas of life is carried out and subjective coping patterns are considered The mental stresses experienced due to the pandemic situation relate primarily to the social environment, the job and society.

In particular, the aspect of reconciling professional and private obligations makes it clear that the challenges perceived here affected women with small children and single parents in particular. The results illustrate the importance of gender and life situation for the individual experience of the pandemic.

Keywords

Oral history, COVID-19, Pandemic, Compatibility, Gender gap, Diversity

Background

The year 2020 was supposed to be groundbreaking for gender equality. Instead, the spread of the COVID 19 pandemic threatens to undo even the limited gains of recent decades. The pandemic deepened already existing inequalities and exposed vulnerabilities in the social, political and economic systems, which in turn amplified the impact of the pandemic [54].

Life history factors have a considerable share in the development and management of disease, but were given little consideration in the measures taken in the pandemic – both nationally and internationally [25,31,41,45]. This contradicts WHO health goals and is also gradually entering public awareness, but so far without effect [33]. At the same time, studies make it clear that the effects significantly influence inequalities: for example, socially disadvantaged people have a higher risk of infection with COVID-19 and a more severe course of the disease [6,13], the possibility of mobile working is unequally given [1], and low-income workers experience above-average income losses [24]. Relevant social determinants of the individual risk of infection are cramped living conditions, poor housing quality, low income, low education and a disadvantaged socio-economic situation [23]. Occupations with a potentially increased risk of exposure are those that are characterised by interpersonal contact and cannot be easily practised from home, such as retail, health or rescue workers [23].

Women more often experience additional care work and reconciliation conflicts [19,27,40], they are more affected by infection worries [21,39] due to different living environments and are exposed to different influences and health resources, which are expressed in different ways of dealing with complaints [58]. Wandschneider [57] points out that a large proportion of health care workers are female [13], that women take on the majority of care work [32,59] and that they suffer more frequently from domestic violence [55].

Taking into account the social determinants of health [10,11,53,60] can already lead to better planning in preparedness plans and contribute to successful pandemic management on several levels [26]. The current COVID 19 pandemic has once again highlighted the drifting apart of opportunity structures.

At the same time, the gender category influences numerous areas of social life and, according to Gamper et al. [15], plays a significant role as a category of social order and social positioning [5,43]. In the area of health, numerous studies have shown a strong difference between the sexes (morbidity, mortality, development and course of diseases, health behaviour) [28,42]. Furthermore, social and cultural factors have an impact on health care and are expressed in partly significant gender differences [15,28].

Qualitative observations of the connections between the pandemic situation, gender and inequality deal with different focal points. The Federal Conference of Women’s and Gender Equality Representatives pointed out early on that there has been increased structural discrimination against women scientists and other experts since the beginning of the COVID pandemic [9]. Several studies point to a stronger disadvantage of female students [3] and scientists [12,16,46,56] in the pandemic situation. Haag and Gamper point to a new urgency in the situation for women in science, which has intensified with the onset of the COVID 19 pandemic [16].

With the aim of recording the perception and interpretation patterns of the pandemic situation on an individual biographical level, the perspective was expanded to include further social aspects. Based on life history interviews, this article explores the question of which life-world effects women in western industrialised countries perceived in the context of the COVID 19 pandemic and the containment measures they experienced and formulated in oral history interviews.

Research Approach: Secondary Analysis of Oral History Projects

Data Collection

This paper captures this phenomenon on an individual- biographical level. To this end, it looks at the individual perception and coping with the measures from the perspective of women. Methodologically, access is gained through a systematic secondary analysis of several oral history projects on experiences during the COVID 19 pandemic in 2020-22, which made their documented records available to the public and for further use. In addition, aspects of the interaction of collective memory are considered as well as organisational structures and subjective coping patterns that helped shape the handling of the measures ordered and thus the crisis community.

A systematically collected sample of oral history interviews with women from western industrialised countries on their experiences in the early phase of the COVID pandemic, which were collected in various projects and made available for use, serves as the source basis. The interviews recorded between March 2020 and October 2021 were subjected to secondary analysis [48,49]. For this purpose, the transcripts of the included interviews on the work situation, perceived risk of infection and expressed or recognisable psychosocial stress were searched [36]. The interviews conducted in other projects were not specifically concerned with these aspects, so they were not always the focus of the interviews, but many interviewees did address these aspects.

This paper is based on a secondary analysis of qualitative data from four different qualitative surveys on experiences with the pandemic situation. The understanding of secondary analysis refers to the analysis of empirical material along a research question that deviates from the epistemological interest of the primary projects included [29,35,44,47]. As explained below, the secondary analysis was carried out methodologically as a qualitative content analysis.

The research design presented here is not fully suitable for the study of individual experiences with the pandemic and restrictive measures. For better comparability, more comparable data sets and questions would have to be available, which was not feasible within the framework of this analysis. Nevertheless, the research presented here can provide initial indications of subjective perceptions and interrelationships. At the same time, it can only be understood as an empirically based, hypothesis-generating preliminary investigation; a hypothesis-testing investigation is therefore still pending.

The interviews included are from published and widely available oral history projects on COVID-19 from Columbia University in New York, Sacred Heart University in Fairfield, Texas A&M University San Antonio and the Historic New Orleans Collection. Even though the recordings are available to the public, the interviews have been effectively anonymised to protect the personality of the people speaking out.

Explanation of the projects included:

New Students in Prof. Ana Paulina Lee’s Contemporary Civilization II course at Columbia University in New York conducted oral history interviews in April and May 2020, shortly after the pandemic hit New York City and Columbia University courses switched from in-person to online. As such, the interviews provide a snapshot of understanding of COVID-19 and its social impact in the early days of the pandemic. From this project, 10 interviews were included in the analysis [29].
Fairfield: The oral histories archived there are the result of student research in courses taught by Dr Charlotte Gradie (HI203 Medicine, Disease and History) and Dr Gerald Reid (SO201 Poverty and Inequality in the US) at Sacred Heart University in Fairfield, Connecticut. From the documented records, all accessible interviews with women, 28 in total, were included in the study [30].
Texas: The COVID-19 Oral History Project began in September 2021 at Texas A&M University, San Antonio and is currently ongoing. From the recordings accessible in the Student Works Collection “History 1302”, 21 videos on female perspectives were included in the analysis [31].
New Orleans: The oral history project “From the Front Narratives of the COVID-19 Pandemic in New Orleans” began in May 2020 and has collected audio interviews with nurses, doctors, paramedics, epidemiologists, public officials, undertakers, spiritual leaders, business people and artists through the end of 2021. The interviews, which have been catalogued and archived, form one of the most comprehensive resources on the social history of the pandemic in New Orleans. From this series, selected interviewees are featured in a series of short videos in an exhibition and on social media. From this project, 6 recordings were included in the analysis [32].

Data Collection

The included interviews provide an exciting foil for comparison with the perspectives in the literature and the other recorded memories. The series of interviews collected between spring 2020 and autumn 2021 address individual perspectives on the pandemic situation. The following diagrams show the composition of the surveyed sample (n=65):

The article uses Daniel Oesch’s class-analytical model to capture and interconnect the multiple effects of the COVID 19 pandemic [37]. This combines a horizontal axis of inequality research (level of education) with a vertical differentiation according to dominant work logics (administrative, interpersonal, technical, independent) (Figures 1-4).

Under 20	21-30	31-40	41-50	51-60	61-70	71-80	over 81
4	26	6	9	14	3	1	2

Figure 1: Distribution by age

Q II/20	Q III/20	Q IV/20	Q I/21	Q II/21
10	0	34	19	2

Figure 2: Distribution by survey period

No children: 44	Children: 21 (of which single: 3)
No migration background: 53	Migration background: 12

Figure 3: Distribution by family background

Apprenticeship	Training profession	Semi-Profession	Academic Profession	Unknown
8	16	18	21	2

Figure 4: Distribution according to education level

According to Fessler et al. [20] in the administrative logic the work process is determined by bureaucratic rules, in the interpersonal work logic direct human interaction plays a central role, in the technical logic the work processes are concentrated on technical artefacts and machines and in the independent work logic the processes are subject to the control mechanisms of autonomy. According to Holst et al. [21,22]. women are clearly overrepresented in the four interpersonal employment classes and in the two lower classes of the administrative work logic, while men dominate above all the technical employment classes and the upper administrative as well as independent employment classes. The gender ratio observed by Holst et al. is also reflected in part in the interview sample. Accordingly, the statements refer primarily to the perspective of representatives of interpersonal work logics with a higher level of education, but other perspectives are also represented (Figure 5).

Administrative	Interpersonal	Technical	Independent	Unknown
Upper Management: 3	Sociocultural Expert: 7	Technical Expert: 0	Independent Professional: 3
Lower Management: 8	Sociocultural Semi-Profession: 9	Technical Semi-Profession: 1	Entrepreneur: 1
Skilled Office Worker: 0	Skilled Service Worker: 7	Skilled Worker: 1	Small Business with employees: 0	Training: 10
Routine Office Worker: 2	Routine Service Worker: 6	Routine Worker: 0	Small Business without employees: 5	Unknown: 2
Total: 13	Total: 29	Total: 2	Total: 9	Total: 12

Figure 5: Distribution according to work logic and employment class (according to Oesch):

Data Analysis

The topic-centred interviews serve as a starting point to reconstruct women’s perspectives on their situation in the pandemic and, more importantly, the perceived impact of the interventions [7]. Topics addressed in the interviews include: Personal background (social and local origin, education and occupation), Recollection of becoming aware of the pandemic situation, Perception of the risk of infection as well as the impact on everyday life, occupation and social environment, Abandoned activities, Comparable drastic experiences, Classification of government coping measures as well as their impact, Personal lessons and consequences from the situation. The recorded interviews give the interviewees, to varying degrees, the opportunity to set their own priorities and formulate their interpretations of the situation. Depending on the interview, interviewees also address the perceived social inequality that is felt to be intensified in the pandemic situation.

The data was analysed using the MaxQDA analysis software. A coding method based on qualitative content analysis according to Mayring served as the evaluation method [34]. Qualitative content analysis according to Mayring involves the ordering, categorisation and structuring of manifest and latent contents and the development of systematic and intersubjectively verifiable results.

The coding was done in two steps; first, all categories were created theory-based (according to Holst et al.) [21]. In order to obtain a balanced code system, the interviews, which were initially coded inductively, were recoded deductively in a second step. The strength of this deductive-inductive approach lies in “not only being able to analyse objects, contexts and processes, but … to imagine them in a re-experiencing way” [34].

Findings

This paper examines women’s perceptions of the impact of COVID-19 on their lives in Western industrialised countries in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and the associated restrictive measures. The perceived impact of COVID-19 on women’s everyday lives is examined below using three topics as examples. These also play an essential role in the public discourse on coping with the pandemic [21]. The following sections are first devoted to the reconciliation of gainful employment and care work; then perceived risks of infection are considered; after that, the aspect of psychosocial stress is examined. For each topic area, typical subjective patterns of experience are reconstructed from the perspective of women.

Reconciling Gainful Employment and Care Work

The following section looks at how the respondents perceive the changed working conditions with regard to the reconciliation of gainful employment and care work in the pandemic situation. In order to get closer to an answer, changes in professional activity and the associated coping patterns and reconciliation conflicts are considered. The majority of the interviewees work in the interpersonal field, i.e. professions that, according to Oesch [37], are mainly occupied by women.

One of the most significant changes in connection with the pandemic situation was to reconcile gainful employment and care work under the new circumstances [27]. While there is no question that this was the sole responsibility of the interviewees, the main responsibility for balancing lay with the interviewees who were confronted with the changed living and working conditions.

Changes in Gainful Employment

Perceivable changes took place especially in the conditions of gainful employment. The interviewees perceived many developments that affected their everyday work. The changes described include, above all, the rules of conduct and hygiene that the interviewees not only had to observe in their work, but also demand from their clients.

“We’re wearing double face mask, we have gloves, we wash our hands constantly, we make sure that we take care of our customers and make sure that they’re are practicing social ” (TX_I67)
“Several interviews referred to the closures and layoffs that accompanied the changed economic situation as very drastic. This changed not only earning but also training opportunities, especially in the interpersonal sphere:
“I gave up my graduation, … things that I have been looking forward to, me and my family.” (NY_I39)
Also, especially in the interpersonal field of work, learning content could not always be adequately conveyed in education and training.
“I was worried that I wasn’t having in person (at the practice)…. I was worried I wasn’t going to be caught up with everything that I need to know by the time I graduate and that I wasn’t going to be up to the par of the therapist before me.” (CO_I20)

Another measure perceived as very relevant is the transfer or placement of professional activities into the virtual realm. This did not only affect women entering the profession:

“So this is actually my first full year teaching I taught for three months. And then we went into lockdown, and I haven’t had a normal experience, if you may have teaching.”(TX_I49)
“Many of the interviewees reported the transition to mobile workplaces and the changes in their working conditions that came with Many of the changes affected all family members in home-based work, members of all genders regardless of whether they were raising children at home or not:
“So we had to rethink everything that we’ve ” (CO_I13, with Care Commitment)
“Because the whole country somehow shutdown, everyone was working ” (NY_I41, with Care commitment). One problem that many affected people perceived was the difficult differentiation of professional and private areas and times:
“Work and life, work and personal life, you know, in the same house, you know, your living room is your working room, and your bedroom is next to your working room. So it’s very confusing how to separate your life–personal life and ” (NY_I38)
“At first I was having a hard time separating my work from my personal life but eventually I learned how to live with ” (TX_I50). This spatial overlap and accompanying availability was perceived as a compression and increase in workload:
“I feel like I’m working a lot more especially when we were full-time working from home. Because I didn’t have to drive to I didn’t have to, you know, do anything to leave my house. I was working, you know, sometimes 7:45 in the morning until like, 6:17 at night So I feel like I’ve been working longer hours and putting different effort in.” (CO_I27)
“Seems like we’re working at all hours of the day in different increments instead of going to work for 8 hours a ” (TX_ I63, with care commitment)

Changes in Care Work

The interviews suggest that people in precarious jobs, people in the low-wage sector or who depend on part-time work are particularly affected by the more difficult conditions in care work. At the same time, the majority of care work is done by women and women are more likely to be in precarious or low-paid jobs. This means that women in particular have greater difficulties in reconciling their professional activities or training with the pandemic measures [38]. The interviews also reveal that already existing multiple burdens are now even more difficult to cope with. Numerous interview sequences make it clear that in particular the lack of supervision of children, the expectation to take on educational tasks and the constant workload have led to reconciliation conflicts.

“So the work stuff was tricky because obviously exacerbated by the fact that then like, my kids were home. So that was really it was a dark time” (CO_I6, with care commitment). It is clear that single parents in particular found few ways to compensate for the extra workload and lack of resources.
“In the beginning it was a very rough transition, as a single mom having two young boys and having to learn how to work from home and homeschool them it was a rough ” (TX_I58, with care commitment). Some interviews also make it clear that administrative institutions, employers and decision-makers are not always able to empathise with the situation of employees or those who qualify themselves and perceive their needs and possibilities.
“I noticed, I think a lot of my colleagues assume that our students are sort of 20 years old, like sitting alone in a room with a private office, doing their work like totally uninterrupted. But what I actually saw was that I’ll pay some of my students are also parents, so it’s the same time as my kids were home from school. Their kids are home from school and even … students who … were responsible for their ” (CO_I6, with care commitment). The interviews also make clear that traditional, stereotypical role models have been reinforced or hardened in the changed working and living conditions. For example, some interviewees report perceived expectations and inequalities within their relationship that have manifested themselves with the pandemic situation:
“I was expected to cook a whole heck of a lot I really didn’t like that. But like, you know, I think that it was just, I felt drained at the end of the day.” (CO_I13, with care commitment)
“I have been kicked out of my So he is taking over my office and there are times where and he’s loud. He runs all these meetings and stuff and it and I’m upstairs over it and I’m trying to run my class. ” (CO_I16, with care commitment). At the same time, some interview sequences make it clear that the role models were also internalised by the female side and thus handed down. For example, it was reported as a matter of course that the man gets the quieter room and the woman felt responsible for supervising the children while she was at work.
“You know, one another world people with the kind of, it was basically my (partner) working upstairs in the office cuz he could shut the door and then me working downstairs because I didn’t want to leave the kids like unsupervised and me taking a meeting with the kids like three feet away from ” (CO_I6, with care commitment)
“Even just figuring out like where do you know, especially for my two daughters While I was also having to have classes, while my husband was needing to access introduce them calls for work.” (CO_I25, with care commitment). Some female interviewees were critical of the internalised unequal distribution of work of others involved:
“I’m … remember standing on the surgery unit talking to the nurse and she was like, completely exhaust braided. She says: ‘I’m going to leave here and I have to go home and, you know, do homework with my kids’ and I’m like: ‘where’s your husband?’ I mean she was completely ” (CO_I24, with care commitment)

Compatibility Conflicts

In addition to the described changes in gainful employment and care work, the accompanying conflicts of reconciliation, the perceived burden and also attempts at compensation are addressed.

In one conversation, it becomes clear that the multiply burdened women burdened themselves with self-reproaches of neglecting their children.

“Because I became a bad parent because I was always trying to work while I was with my kids which is not good for them … and I just thinking about it all the time.” (CO_I6, with care commitment)

Coping Patterns

Several interviews refer to coping patterns to compensate for the stressful situation. Among the approaches mentioned were better structuring or reorganisation as well as support from other family members. In the case of a solution found, a thoroughly positive attitude towards the changes is evident.

“I feel like it has made me a little bit better at making a schedule, planning things.” (TX_I58, with care commitment)
“I’m … very lucky to have our aunt living with me and doing a lot of the housework and the cleaning, and just running errands and being a ” (NY_I45)
“But the reality of it is is that happening to (my husband) was the greatest thing that could have Because … him being able to be home and do what he did and … with a level of comfort that I may not have had had we both been working” (CO_I24, with care commitment)

Possibility of Infection during the Pandemic

Another aspect that is relevant in the context of women’s perspectives on the influences of COVID-19 and the accompanying measures is the risk of infection. How did the interviewees perceive their own risks of infection and those of their environment? For this purpose, both the objective and subjective risks of infection were considered. It can be seen that interviewees with children speak more extensively about perceived risks.

A comparison of the fields of work to which the respondents (n=65) are assigned shows that the majority work in the interpersonal field (administrative: 13, interpersonal: 29, technical: 2, independent: 9, unknown: 12). Activities in this field of work often involve direct contact with people, which means that the objective risk of infection is also higher than in other occupational classes. The question here is to what extent an assumed objectively higher risk of infection is also reflected in the perception of the respondents (subjective risk of infection).

Subjective Risk of Infection

The perceived risk of infection becomes clear through several aspects: classification of the general situation, desire for more knowledge, existing fears, perceived risks of specific groups (young childhood, age, occupation, social class, big city), corresponding protective measures.

Several interviews show that the pandemic situation and the possibility of self-disease were classified differently in phases and individually. Public and social media as well as conversations with other people played a major role in the classification of the situation.

“I saw more people getting infected, more patients (coming) to the hospitals, and that’s when I said: this is serious.” (NY_I47).
“I didn’t think it would impact our life here. … So we didn’t expect it will hit us that ” (NY_I38). Individual conversations point to a desire for more knowledge in order to be able to classify the situation:
“At that time there wasn’t a lot of research or knowledge about the pandemic. So you had to take the most cautions most forgotten that you ” (CO_I7)
“So I started reading every book I could about an And then I read a book on (the major outbrerakt of Spanish Flu) in (the city) .” (NO_I34)

Along with this, different fears were expressed, especially at the beginning of the pandemic when infection routes, courses and effects were perceived as difficult to assess:

“You know in the beginning it was really scary. I’d personally felt like the world was ending. I didn’t know what was going to happen like, … Really like scared me … So I would say the hardest part was the beginning and I guess like the lack of information and the uncertainty and the ” (CO_I4)
“People were very afraid. … I was really afraid I remember, this funeral home from Brooklyn, was on the news and they have so many dead bodies that they would just piling up in a truck outside” (CO_I11)
“So with COVID-19 at first I didn’t want to go to the store, I was afraid…. For maybe a few months I was just using curbside so I would just order through (a delivery service). I’ve never sanitized my hands so ” (TX_I63, with care commitment)
“So my life started to change. I was living a different life. I lived with the fear of going out on the streets. I was afraid of everything that would happen. I thought that every step I took would infect me. I thought everything was already infected … Then everything changed inside me Before, I lived a free life, I went out on the street without worrying…. When I go out, I have to remember to take care of myself. I have to go out with a mask, I have to take disinfectant, I have to think about who I approach because for me everyone is infected” (NY_I47).

There are no statements about fears due to inadequate protective measures in the private or work sphere. It can be assumed that comparable positions can be found in a gender-independent consideration. The concerns are based, among other things, on a non-knowledge or a non-controllability and a resulting feeling of powerlessness.

“We all want on this (situation) is that was at least one thing I could control You have no control in this whole thing.” (CO_I24, with care commitment)

Objective Risk of Infection

It also becomes clear in the interviews that objectively known risks of infection were known and perceived in the interviewees’ environment. The extent to which this affected the living and working conditions of the interviewees is shown in the following sequences.

One risk that was formulated in the interviews is the perceived risk of infection of newborns and children:

“My sister has a baby and she’s been taking it very easy to because she’s doesn’t know how, you know, this would affect the virus would affect the baby of his ” (CO_I20)
“I am concerned that (my son) going to you know he does socialized with this local kids that go to school … I chose to go remote ” (CO_I29, with care commitment)

The perceived objective risk of infection of older people in the environment did come up more frequently:

“With my family is all here in (X-City) so my parents are 75 … That age, you can easily contracted this disease. So …at the beginning … I stayed away for quite some time.” (CO_I14, with care commitment)
“Especially like my elderly family members. I’ve been really concerned about them… just because they’re their immune systems are as strong as they once So it’s a lot of stress on me.” (CO_I8)
“Whenever I go visit my grandmother, like, I never hug her anymore and it’s just, like, it’s really sad.” (CO_I8)

The perception of risk of infection in the context of vulnerable groups is probably related to involvement in care work. It can be assumed that comparable concerns were expressed by all people involved in this field. If there is a higher proportion of women here, this is probably related to the higher involvement of women in care work overall.

In addition to the likelihood of infection of people in the environment, the perception of one’s own risk as an older person was also addressed:

“At the beginning I thought it was something unimportant, but then I saw the situation was somewhat I saw how people were already getting infected very quickly – and that worried me. Firstly, because I am 60 years old … At my age, my immune system is already weakened, which means it’s a danger for me.“ (NY_I47).

Besides age, social and economic class were perceived as objective risk factors, but this was rather rarely addressed:

“Because of their low salary, (some) cannot afford to buy healthy and nutritious So they eat poorly. If they eat poorly, they will be more easily affected by the virus. They will die faster because their immune system is weakened.” (NY_I47).

Very often, respondents raised the perceived risk of infection in relation to their job:

“But in my situation with my current job as a sales associate at (a big super market), I am not able to work from home. So, I always have to go in, in-person for my shift and interact with other customers and um people who may potentially carry the ” (“ (TX_I65)

Urban space and cramped situations as a possible risk factor for contracting COVID-19 and how this affects one’s situation was also mentioned several times:

“I feel like (the big city) is the worst place that you could be right now, knowing how many people are dying there every ” (NY_I40)
“The populations is insane it’s definitely it was definitely very different cuz here I anytime I just need to put my mask I have to be extremely careful.” (CO_I23)

In particular, interviewees from the interpersonal work sector, for whom working from home was not possible and close human contact was part of the job description, reflected on the risk of infection they perceived and described the impact on their work and life situation.

“Because being in the medical field, I’m very aware of germs, and I’m an avid handwasher” (NY_I40)
“I was worried that I would bring something home and get them sick. I bring my hand sanitizer everywhere. I wash my hands all the time.” (CO_I9)
“So coming home we had the standard procedure where he would have me in the back porch and I would take off my He would Lysol my shoes and then he would take my clothes deposit them in a separate bucket and then wash them in hot water to make sure that nothing was coming in the house wasn’t contaminated. And then, I would go right into the shower.” (CO_I24, with Care commitment)
“My mom … was working directly with COVID patients because her floor that she work at the hospital was the COVID 4 and that was during the peak of the So, you know, she would come home and we couldn’t, you know, we couldn’t interact with her … She was literally wiping herself down with (a desinfection) that’s just what it took for her to have that piece of mind that she’s not bringing anything home.” (CO_I7)

Summary Table of People Involved

Interview	Project	Age	Care Obligation	Single Parent	Migration	Working Class	Working Logic	Level of Education
2	Connecticut	Up to 20	no	no	yes	Routine Service Worker	interpersonal	Apprenticeship
3	Connecticut	31-40	yes	no	no	Sociocultural expert	interpersonal	Academic Profession
4	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Lower management	administrative	Semi-Profession
5	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Lower management	administrative	Semi-Profession
6	Connecticut	31-40	yes	no	no	Sociocultural expert	interpersonal	Academic Profession
7	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	yes	Independent Professional	independent	Academic Profession
8	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Sociocultural Semi-Profession	interpersonal	Semi-Profession
9	Connecticut	31-40	no	no	no	Lower management	administrative	Semi-Profession
10	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Lower management	administrative	Semi-Profession
11	Connecticut	51-60	no	no	no	Sociocultural expert	interpersonal	Academic Profession
12	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Lower management	administrative	Semi-Profession
13	Connecticut	51-60	yes	no	no	Lower management	administrative	Semi-Profession
14	Connecticut	51-60	yes	no	no	Sociocultural Semi-Profession	interpersonal	Semi-Profession
15	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Skilled Service Worker	interpersonal	Training Profession
16	Connecticut	41-50	yes	no	no	Sociocultural expert	interpersonal	Academic Profession
17	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Skilled Service Worker	interpersonal	Training Profession
18	Connecticut	Up to 20	no	no	no	Training	interpersonal	Academic Profession
19	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Training	interpersonal	Academic Profession
20	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Skilled Service Worker	interpersonal	Training Profession
21	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Skilled Service Worker	interpersonal	Training Profession
22	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Sociocultural expert	interpersonal	Academic Profession
23	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Routine Service Worker	interpersonal	Apprenticeship
24	Connecticut	51-60	yes	no	no	Skilled Service Worker	interpersonal	Training Profession
25	Connecticut	51-60	yes	no	no	Sociocultural expert	interpersonal	Academic Profession
26	Connecticut	21-30	no	no	no	Sociocultural expert	administrative	Academic Profession
27	Connecticut	51-60	no	no	no	Sociocultural expert	interpersonal	Academic Profession
28	Connecticut	51-60	no	no	no	Entrepreneur	independent	Academic Profession
29	Connecticut	31-40	yes	yes	no	Lower management	administrative	Semi-Profession
32	New Orleans	51-60	yes	yes	no	Upper management	administrative	Academic Profession
33	New Orleans	41-50	yes	no	no	Independent Professional	independent	Academic Profession
34	New Orleans	41-50	no	no	no	Upper management	administrative	Academic Profession
35	New Orleans	51-60	no	no	yes	Independent Professional	independent	Academic Profession
36	New Orleans	41-50	yes	no	no	Upper management	administrative	Academic Profession
37	New Orleans	41-50	no	no	no	Skilled Service Worker	interpersonal	Training Profession
38	New York	51-60	no	no	yes	Small Business without employees	independent	Training Profession
39	New York	21-30	no	no	no	Training	unknown	Training Profession
40	New York	51-60	no	yes	no	Technicale Semi-Profession	technical	Semi-Profession
41	New York	51-60	yes	no	no	Unknown	unknown	Unknown
42	New York	61-70	no	no	no	Routine Service Worker	interpersonal	Apprenticeship
43	New York	51-60	no	no	no	Small Business without employees	independent	Training Profession
44	New York	21-30	no	no	no	Training	administrative	Academic Profession
45	New York	Over 81	no	no	no	Unknown	unknown	Unknown
46	New York	71-80	no	no	yes	Sociocultural Semi-Profession	interpersonal	Semi-Profession
47	New York	61-70	no	no	yes	Routine Service Worker	interpersonal	Apprenticeship
48	Texas	31-40	yes	no	no	Sociocultural Semi-Profession	interpersonal	Semi-Profession
49	Texas	21-30	yes	no	no	Sociocultural Semi-Profession	interpersonal	Semi-Profession
50	Texas	21-30	no	no	yes	Small Business without employees	independent	Training Profession
51	Texas	21-30	no	no	no	Small Business without employees	independent	Training Profession
52	Texas	Up to 20	no	no	no	Training	unknown	Academic Profession
53	Texas	21-30	no	no	no	Routine Office Worker	interpersonal	Apprenticeship
54	Texas	21-30	yes	no	no	Lower management	administrative	Semi-Profession
55	Texas	21-30	no	no	no	Training	unknown	Academic Profession
56	Texas	41-50	yes	no	no	Sociocultural Semi-Profession	interpersonal	Semi-Profession
57	Texas	51-60	no	no	yes	Sociocultural Semi-Profession	interpersonal	Semi-Profession
58	Texas	31-40	yes	no	no	Facharbeit	technical	Training Profession
59	Texas	41-50	yes	no	yes	Sociocultural Semi-Profession	interpersonal	Semi-Profession
60	Texas	Up to 20	no	no	no	Training	unknown	Training Profession
61	Texas	31-40	yes	no	yes	Sociocultural Semi-Profession	interpersonal	Semi-Profession
62	Texas	51-60	yes	no	yes	Sociocultural Semi-Profession	interpersonal	Semi-Profession
63	Texas	41-50	yes	no	no	Skilled Service Worker	interpersonal	Training Profession
64	Texas	21-30	no	no	no	Training	unknown	Academic Profession
65	Texas	21-30	no	no	no	Routine Service Worker	interpersonal	Apprenticeship
66	Texas	21-30	no	no	no	Routine Service Worker	interpersonal	Apprenticeship
67	Texas	Up to 20	no	no	no	Routine Office Worker	interpersonal	Apprenticeship

Psychosocial Stress and Borderline Experiences

Among the most far-reaching influences in the context of the pandemic situation and the restrictive measures are the psychosocial stresses that the interviewees perceived and expressed directly or implied indirectly. These had an impact on the living and working environment of the interviewees. The statements on this concentrated mainly on three areas: Stresses or borderline experiences in the social environment, at work and in society.

Stresses and Strains in the Social Environment

The central burdens and borderline experiences mentioned are those in the social environment; here above all: the restriction of social contacts, the restriction of freedom of movement, isolation (own, others), lack of social support, fear of self-infection, infecting others as well as experiences of illness and death.

Most of the statements on restrictions of family and general social contacts concern the environment of extended family and friends. It is observed that normalities, bonds and dynamics shift greatly as a result:

“I’m with my mom and dad. I’m an only child. So, it’s just You miss interacting with other people.” (NY_I44)
“I would spend more time actually with my immediate family um but less time with my extended family … and that would kind of affect um our ” (TX_I65)
“So it was hard because my family … hasn’t even met (my newborn son) and that’s like insane, you know … but it’s just really affected like how he’s growing ” (CO_I20)
“Haven’t had much of a social life in the last, you know, since pandemic started.” (CO-I4)

Some interviewees perceive the restrictions on freedom of movement and leisure life as burdensome:

“We had to stay quarantined. It was really tough cause there wasn’t much to do but, I had to cope with it cause I’m an outdoor person. It was ” (TX_I67)
“We’re never going to be able to go anywhere ever again because of all this you know I mean like I want to go to Italy again. I’ve been saying that you know forever and I’m sitting here going to get to Italy before that or ” (CO_I24, with care commitment)
“So I’m afraid to go outside, so much so that I don’t want to go outside at all I have to disinfect all the products I buy, I have to disinfect myself. I have to be careful not to bring the virus into my house In other words, it is a drastic change. For me, my life has stopped. It has stopped In other words, my life is no longer my life.” (NY_I47).

Non-voluntary isolation measures when ill are perceived as a very strong burden. Respondents describe feelings of being locked up and a fear of loneliness:

“It was just a toll mentally just not being able to really do anything … and like kind of felt like you were in a box. … I think a lot of people felt that ” (CO_I21)
“That’s really scary. And there was nobody like, not a soul, which really like made it even more But it was like I was really, really alone. And it did have a fax on like my mental state and my moods every day and it was just like, upsetting because I will talk to people and I would be happy and I’m going to have to hang up and then I was back being alone and it was just really upsetting and it wasn’t didn’t feel the same as going back into the quarantine.” (CO_I18)

The isolation imposed on sick and dying people is perceived as equally overwhelming, regardless of whether the respondents were directly affected by it or not. This situation also put a strain on caregivers, as shown below:

“I do have a friend who’s father passed away, …Well he had detected, or was, he found out that he had this Coronavirus. And they took her home, they wheeled her out, she waved goodbye, and that was the last she saw of him and two days later he died. And I think, I think with this virus, the sad part of it all is, is, you know, they end life alone. So I think it’s kind of like a lonely disease and ” (NY_I42). One thing that the interviewees express as a very intense burden is the experience of illness and death in their immediate and extended environment:
“It’s been such hard year, hard for First of all, my family got infected, all my kids got infected, my husband got infected, I got infected … it was such a bad time. And it is crazy because I always tried to protect my family by not taking them nowhere, just stay home and we still got infected, this is crazy … I always try be safe and take care that way we don’t get the virus but we still got it.” (TX_I59, with care commitment)
“When I tested positive, my first thought was I’m going to be alone for 2 weeks, which I was really scared.” (CO_I18)
“Well, it affected me I nearly lost my life to coronavirus” (TX_I61, with Care Commitment).
“It was difficult. It was sad. It was heart wrenching. We lost family members. All of a sudden, I lost a very good friend and coach. … So that hurts my ” (TX_I62, with care commitment)

Stress at Work

Another area to which the perceived stress related is the occupation. Aspects cited included excessive workload, the possible far-reaching consequences of professional actions, job insecurity, and borderline experiences in professional activities. Several interviews address the perceived time pressure and increased workload due to the urgency of the situation:

“But it was just like all the sudden we had one day to, you know, figure it all out.” (CO_I11)
“Covid made us have to work very, very I mean, there were weeks where we were working here. Um, we were running around frantically for, for weeks at a time. You know, this was like a every day was just, um, like a frantic day. And we were getting used to working like that when your adrenaline just at such a high level and it just never let up. I feel like we never even could take a breath to just kind of regroup and say, oh my goodness, it just, it never stopped.” (NO_I32, with care commitment). Another perceived burden was the possible far-reaching consequences of professional actions in combination with the urgency required, existing ignorance or existing overload.
“And there was so much that we did not know about this virus and we were making decisions on the fly with presumptions about what this virus might This is scary.” (NO_I33, with Care Commitment)
“The hardest decisions came around the increasing number of deaths … and recognizing that, um, there was a point when there would be, um, multiple cardiac arrest and we did not have enough employees to respond to the other calls. We also had to look at our medical, um, responses and decide how likely is survival after a certain period of … We did have to modify our protocols and that was hard.” (NO_I33, with care commitment)

For several interviewees who worked in precarious or semi- skilled jobs, another aspect that was perceived as very stressful was the perceived pressure of impending dismissal and unemployment:

“Last year I was working as a waitress, I couldn’t even work at that moment because all the restaurants and bars were closed, and it was bad, really ” (TX_I59, with Care Commitment).
“I believe it was May that entire office actually, with us, for offices, with investing company and all four offices laid off their stuff. So that was I think probably the most impactful way that the coronavirus has affected me and my So that was really hard to take.” (CO_I7)
Existential borderline experiences resulting from the professional activity, such as accompanying dying people and their relatives, appear to be particularly drastic:
“And these people would call … the hospital and know, their family members are dying and the only time that you would be able to come in as if they were making a decision to take somebody off life support, they let you come in and say goodbye to the ” (CO_I24, with Care Commitment)
“I got the iPad out, and I (asked my colleagues, to) work for me, so that I could (speak) with the family And I said to (the patient): ‘You know, you hear your family.’ I just tried to allay their fears and let them know that I was doing everything I could to make sure that she was peaceful so they could have peace.” (CO_I24, with care commitment)

Burdens on Society

In addition to the perceived stresses in the social and professional environment, psychosocial stresses were also formulated in relation to society. The aspects addressed include: unforeseen changes, the experience of social boundaries as well as the experience of social division.

Several interviewees mentioned that the suddenly changed circumstances and the experience of uncertainty were stressful for them.

“I’m… everyday I’m kinda panicked too because I don’t know how long I have to work at home.” (NY_I38)
“So everyone was kind of uprooted for sure. And fast like everyone had to kind of figure out what to do right ” (CO_I9). Likewise, the changing public discourse and the experienced social division were among the challenges mentioned:
“If I was to compare this to anything, it would be like another civil war, because Americans are fighting with each other over human rights, and they’re on either side of the ” (TX_I51)
“Another stressful factor mentioned was the experience of the limits of the social system:
“This pandemic also show our country does have weakness, too. The system–it’s not as effective as we thought. We’re not as strong as we ” (NY_I38)
“So like, we are in a new normal.” (CO_I20)
“I would tell future generations about this pandemic to not trust everything you may have read on social media and to listen reliability to credible sources … I think when history writes about COVID, it is going to write about as us as a society and as a global entity how we failed a little bit in our responses and how ill prepared we were.” (TX_I56, with care commitment)

Discussion and Reflection

The COVID 19 pandemic had a far-reaching social impact, not only in its early phase. This paper explored the impact of the pandemic situation and coping measures on individual lives, looking at the perspectives of women in the United States. In order to capture female perspectives, the effects of COVID-19 and coping measures on women’s everyday lives were examined using three aspects as examples: the reconciliation of gainful employment and care work, perceptions of the risk of infection, and psychosocial stress and borderline experiences.

Based on a secondary analysis of topic-related interviews from four oral history projects, the perceived lifeworld effects of the COVID 19 pandemic were recorded and analysed. For a networked view of the multiple effects of the COVID 19 pandemic, this paper draws on Oesch’s class analytic model [37]. It shows that an overwhelming proportion of interviewees work in the interpersonal sector, i.e. professions that, according to Oesch [37], are mainly occupied by women.

According to Holst et al. [21,22], women are significantly overrepresented in the four interpersonal labour force classes and in the two lower administrative labour force classes; men, on the other hand, dominated mainly the technical labour force classes and the upper administrative as well as independent labour force classes. These factors were given little consideration in the pandemic mitigation measures [23,25,31,41,45]. The associated effects become clear in the individual experience of the respondents.

For example, the lockdown of almost all social sectors that were not considered relevant to the system – such as crèches, kindergartens, schools, cultural offerings – and the simultaneous working from home made it difficult to reconcile gainful employment and care work. Many respondents, especially single parents or mothers of small children experienced the situation as precarious

According to Bukof, the difficulties that arise in the pandemic situation manifest themselves in a multiple burden on women of all social status groups with children due to simultaneous home schooling, hardly sufficient emergency care, rarely partnership-based solutions and the privatisation of the care problem [9].

Suphan’s research also points to these problems. The following were cited as burdensome: Childcare closures and homeschooling, the need for childcare while working, a constant sense of insecurity, a perceived disadvantage at work due to parental responsibilities. Suphan states a decreased possibility for women to combine gainful employment and care work [52].

These aspects are also reflected in the interviews analysed. With regard to the question of reconciling life-supporting and caring tasks, the interviewees describe above all perceived changes in behaviour and hygiene rules, dismissals or training discontinuations due to the pandemic, effects on employees in the low-wage sector and in part-time jobs, the transfer or placement of professional activities in the virtual sphere, the dissolution of work boundaries, experienced externally expected and internalised role models, non-reconciliation of family and work and the associated reactions.

Several interviewees describe how the impact of COVID-19 directly affects their precarious employment status. Several interviewees also report on dismissals and leaves of absence, the resulting consequences and the pressure that arises from the threat of dismissal alone. In the interpretation, however, it must be taken into account that all people, regardless of gender, suffer from precarious employment and living conditions when they are affected by them.

On the question of reconciling care and gainful employment, Holst et al. point out that the gender and age of the children (and thus of the parents) are relevant. Thus, women, regardless of their socio- economic position, have a significantly higher risk of experiencing conflicts between gainful employment and care work. Holst et al. describe social inequalities in the management of reconciliation conflicts: For example, the lower interpersonal and technical classes could hardly work from home and were more dependent on people from the social network to organise the care of their children in times of closed childcare facilities [21,22].

Current research notes that mobile working can increase inequality [30]. Arndt et al. describe a general increased burden due to, among other things, the simultaneity of private and professional life, heterogeneous individual starting points and technical infrastructures [4].

Bukof describes an associated potential for disadvantage and discrimination in several areas. For example, women often have poorer equipment and access, and students and employees in lower wage groups are also at a disadvantage [9]. Access to information and the dissolution of boundaries between private space and work are also described.

Suphan notes changes in working hours, the place of work and work processes [52]. For example, the journey to the workplace would be saved, but mobile working would significantly increase the difference between contractually fixed and actual working time. Thus, home office increases the spatial and temporal dissolution of boundaries through constant presence. Communication is strongly objectified with a simultaneous lack of personal contact.

Similar results can also be seen in the oral history interviews. In the qualitative interviews analysed here, it becomes apparent that mobile working has ambivalent effects from the perspective of the interviewees. Although this offered protection against infection and significantly reduced commuting, several affected persons describe experienced problems (dissociation, permanent accessibility) depending on their housing and living situation and their technical resources. Respondents in lower income brackets seemed to be more affected by the resulting social inequalities, and they also saw less scope to implement alternative family role models. In particular, working mothers of younger children, single parents and women in cramped living conditions found it difficult to achieve an improved work-life balance through mobile working. It was pointed out several times that working from home and childcare, and parallel homeschooling, are difficult to reconcile. In some cases, support from the social network was able to compensate for major challenges, but the experienced situation often brought parents of young children to the brink of overload. In this context, it should be further investigated to what extent effects related to mobile working had an additional influence on the pandemic experience.

Another aspect that was considered was the perceived risks of infection. In general, it can be said that individual perceptions differ less according to the level of education and more according to social environment and work logics. The perceived risk of infection could be examined through several aspects: Understanding of the seriousness of the situation, level of information, existing fears, classification of infection risks in young childhood, age, depending on occupation, social class, living environment and enabled protective measures.

The qualitative interviews indicate that a broad awareness of pandemic-related health risks was raised by people from the interpersonal work environment. There were hardly any statements about the lack of protective measures at the workplace. In addition to people from the interpersonal work sector, interviewees living in urban areas in particular commented on their perceived increased risk of infection due to the sometimes cramped situations in public spaces in large cities.

In addition to the aspect of the risk of infection, the psychosocial burden associated with the pandemic and the restrictive measures was considered. In the area of health, Bukof notes an increase in physical and psychological stress, the emergence of fundamental fears as well as the very different recognition of risk patient status [9]. In the area of organisational processes, Bukof points to a perceived low level of problem awareness at management level, non-transparent decisions and processes, and a lack of anchoring and implementation of equal opportunities measures [9]. The oral history interviews focused on the following areas in particular: social environment, profession and society.

The stressful aspects in the social environment mentioned in the interviews seem to be less gender-specific. The frequently mentioned burdens include the restriction of social contacts, the restriction of freedom of movement, isolation (own, others), lack of social support, fear of self-infection, infecting others as well as experiences of illness and death. The experience of domestic violence was not directly discussed in the interviews; this may be due to the fact that the problem is generally not dealt with openly and at the same time was not directly asked about. In order to obtain reliable data on this, the interviews studied so far would have to be supplemented in the analysis with written sources from violence protection outpatient clinics.

According to Holst, the pandemic-related health risks found their focus in the interpersonal work logic, the economic burdens of the pandemic measures mainly affected the self-employed and technical classes and the pandemic-related mobile work mainly affected the administrative area [21]. The interviews reflect Holst’s horizontally differentiated distribution of work-related burdens and risks. The psychosocial burdens formulated here, which related to the job, dealt with excessive workload, far-reaching consequences of professional actions, job insecurity as well as borderline experiences in professional activities. Since the interviewees work to a large extent in the interpersonal field, there were several women in caring, therapeutic and medical professions among the interviewees who were very stressed by the pandemic situation.

Psychosocial stress in relation to society included, in particular, stress due to unforeseen changes, the experience of social boundaries and the experience of social division.

The captured memories of individual experiences in the COVID 19 pandemic show how the pandemic and the implemented containment measures were perceived. Most of the interviews were conducted between the second quarter of 2020 and the first quarter of 2021, i.e. in a phase in which restrictive measures were very topical and recently implemented, depending on the region, and further developments were not foreseeable. The interviews thus depict perceptions that arose from this situation. On the one hand, this means that the memories of the events and processes are still very present. On the other hand, it also means that some measures and the problems associated with them might have been understood differently over time, that an inner distance from some situations would be more likely and that relativization or even glorification could also occur. This must be taken into account when interpreting the statements.

Because the selection of interviews for the secondary analysis is not based on random sampling, it cannot be guaranteed to be representative of all women in the United States. Nevertheless, the author is convinced that the present dataset can show clear trends.

The oral history projects included here differ not only in terms of the researchers, target groups and scientific interests, but also in their questions. In addition, different project designs were implemented. For these reasons, the interviews are not directly comparable, but they can provide an overarching perspective and illuminate specific focuses. This was used in such a way that the various interviews can complement each other. When classifying the interview sequences, it must therefore be taken into account that the statements were made in the context of different projects and the interviewees answered questions on the topic considered here less directly. At the same time, the sample offers a rich fundus that allows insights into the personal perspectives of women on experiencing the pandemic and the changes it has brought about.

The present analysis is only a cautious approximation. It became clear that those surveyed perceived the early phase of the pandemic as a collective experience: the uncertainty about the future and their own dismay from a possible infection made their personal socio-economic situation clear to those affected.

Conclusion

The analysis of the perceived life-world effects has shown that the changes caused by the pandemic have had a far-reaching influence. They affected personal contact with one another, the conditions of gainful employment and care work and, in the case of compatibility conflicts, became a factor that increased inequalities. Based on a secondary analysis of oral history interviews, the perceived impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on everyday life was recorded and the assumed relevance of gender and pandemic experience was discussed. A better understanding of the situation can serve as a basis for needs- based support and necessary political measures in the further course of the pandemic under consideration and future epidemic events. Even if it can only be verified in a long-term study, it can be assumed that the pandemic situation has made it more difficult for women to reconcile gainful employment and care work and career paths [12].

The differentiation of the pandemic effects according to Oesch’s class scheme offers an extended approach to understanding pandemic inequalities. The results also show the analytical benefit of the qualitative approach of oral history to determine individual perspectives on pandemic experiences. The qualitative interviews allow a direct insight into the individual perceptions and classifications. The utterances contain different levels of reflection – some sequences refer to personal experiences, others anticipate other experiences and others reflect on a meta-level. Access via the oral history shows the extent to which COVID-19 and the coping measures associated with the pandemic affected practically all areas of life of the interviewees included in the study. In particular, the aspects of the compatibility of paid work and care work, perceived risks of infection and experienced psychosocial stress made it clear that people who perform care work were particularly affected by the pandemic situation and the associated restrictive measures. It seems that the pandemic and the restrictive measures that have accompanied it have increased social inequalities. In order to be able to name the multiple, intertwined dimensions of inequality more clearly in this context and to be able to make meaningful recommendations for future pandemic plans, it is important that future research looks for alternative approaches to analyze the problems perceived by the interviewees. The long-term consequences can also only be mapped out at a later point in time, but it is already clear how far-reaching the pandemic experience is affecting gender inequality.

Sources

Fairfield: Interview 2-29, “Covid-19 Oral History”, 2020, Sacred Heart University, https://digitalcommons. sacredheart.edu/Covid19-oralhistories/
New Orleans: Interview 32-37, “From the Front Narratives of the COVID-19 Pandemic in New Orleans”, 2020/21. https://www.hnoc.org/research/front-line- narratives-COVID-19-pandemic-new-orleans
New York: Interview 38-47, “Columbia University student COVID-19 oral history collection, 2020”, 2020, Columbia Center for Oral History, New https://oralhistoryportal. library.columbia.edu/document.php?id=ldpd_14966338

Texas; Interview 48-68, “Covid-19 Oral History Project”, 2020, Texas A&M University, San Antonio. https://digitalcommons.tamusa. edu/hist1302_spring2021/

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Neuroprotective Effects of a Serotonin Receptor Peptide Following Sham vs. Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in the Zucker Rat

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DOI: 10.31038/EDMJ.2023731

Abstract

Aims: Accelerated cognitive decline frequently complicates traumatic brain injury. Obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus drive peripheral inflammation which may accelerate traumatic brain injury-associated neurodegeneration. The Zucker rat harbors G-protein coupled receptor agonist IgG autoantibodies and in vitro neurotoxicity caused by these autoantibodies was prevented by a novel synthetic fragment of the serotonin 2A receptor. The aim of the present study was to test whether genetic obesity manifested in Zucker diabetic fatty rat is associated with greater spatial memory impairment before and after mild traumatic brain injury compared to Zucker lean rats. Furthermore, we investigated whether these neurodegenerative complications can be lessened by administration of a novel putative neuroprotective peptide comprised of a fragment of the second extracellular loop of the serotonin 2A receptor.

Methods: Age-matched lean and fatty diabetic Zucker rats were tested in the Morris water maze (spatial memory) prior to receiving a sham-injury or lateral fluid percussion (LFP) mild traumatic brain injury. Behavioral testing was repeated at 1-week, 1-month, and 3-month intervals following injury. A synthetic peptide consisting of a portion of the 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) 2A receptor (2 mg/kg) (vehicle, or an inactive scrambled version of the peptide (2 mg/kg)) was administered via intraperitoneal route every other day for 7 days after sham or LFP injury to lean rats or 7 days before and after sham or LFP injury to fatty rats.

Results: Mild traumatic brain injury impaired recall of spatial memory in fatty and lean rats. Zucker fatty rats subjected to sham-injury or mild TBI experienced a significantly greater longitudinal decline in recall of spatial memory compared to lean Zucker rats. A synthetic peptide fragment of the 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor significantly enhanced acquisition of spatial learning and it appeared to strengthen recall of spatial learning (one-week) after sham injury in Zucker rats.

Conclusions: These data suggest that the Zucker diabetic fatty rat is a suitable animal model to investigate the role of metabolic factor(s) in accelerated cognitive decline. A novel synthetic peptide comprised of a fragment of the second extracellular loop of the human serotonin 2A receptor appeared to have neuroprotective effects on both acquisition and recall of spatial memory in subsets of Zucker rats, with relatively greater benefit in sham-injured, lean Zucker rats.

Introduction

Cognitive dysfunction increases substantially following Traumatic Brain Injury [1] (TBI) contributing to substantial morbidity and mortality in affected persons. Peripheral and central inflammation drive neurodegeneration via activation of innate and adaptive immune mechanisms which may target (in part) neurovascular antigens released during traumatic brain injury. Owing to a global epidemic of obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus [2], lifetime TBI-sufferers having metabolic derangements associated with peripheral inflammation may be at increased risk for experiencing certain neurodegenerative complications [3].

The Zucker diabetic fatty rat (ZDF) is a model of morbid obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension [4] which exhibits high level of innate immunity, i.e. pro-inflammatory cytokines [5]. Previously, we reported spontaneously-occurring neurotoxic agonist autoantibodies targeting the 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin) 2A receptor in plasma from both ZDF rat and Zucker lean rat (ZLR) sub-strains with the ZDF rats having persistently high level at 5 months of age [6]. The serotonin 2A receptor is a known treatment target in major depressive disorder and Parkinson’s disease, two neurodegenerative complications following TBI. Here we tested for changing in the acquisition and/or recall of spatial learning in substrains of Zucker fatty and lean rats following mild TBI (induced by lateral fluid percussion) or sham injury.

In addition, a putative neuroprotective peptide comprised of a 5-hydroxytryptamine (5HT) 2A receptor second extracellular loop region fragment was effective in preventing in vitro neurotoxicity caused by autoantibodies targeting the serotonin 2A receptor from both ZDF rat plasma [6] and human neurovascular disorders plasma [7]. Therefore the efficacy of this peptide in modulating TBI- (or sham-injury associated spatial memory impairments in fatty and lean Zucker rats was tested. The mechanism of the action of the 5HT2AR peptide fragment was explored using alanine substitution of key functional amino acid residues.

Materials and Methods

Peptides

A linear synthetic peptide, SCLLADDN (SN..8 or “P4”) having a sequence identical to that of a fragment of the second extracellular loop region of the human 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor was synthesized at Lifetein, Inc (Hillsborough, NJ) and had ≥95% purity. Substitutions of SCLLADDN containing a single alanine amino acid replacement, e.g. SALLADDN, SCLLADAN were synthesized at Lifetein, Inc (Hillsborough, NJ) and had purity of ≥95%. A “scrambled” peptide containing the same amino acids as SCLLADDN had a sequence of LASNDCLD (LD.8) and a purity of 96.37%, MW 849.91. The lyophilized peptides were stored (in the presence of dessicant) at −40 degrees C prior to use. On the day of an experiment, an aliquot of lyophilized peptide was reconstituted in sterile saline at the indicated concentration. Reconstituted peptide(s) were prepared fresh before each experiment.

Animals

All procedures were conducted according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Veterans Affairs Medical Center (East Orange, New Jersey). Male ZDF (fa/fa) and lean (+/?) Zucker rats were obtained from Charles River Laboratories (Kingston, NY) at approximately 6-7 weeks of age. All rats were single housed upon arrival, with modest enrichment (a PVC tube). Rats were provided ad libitum access to food and water and maintained in a 12 h light/dark cycle with lights on at 0630. All procedures occurred during the light phase of the circadian cycle and a timeline of procedures is shown in Figure 1. Results of the open field test (OFT) for anxiety-like behavior and sucrose preference test results (a measure of anhedonic behavior) are not reported here.

Figure 1: Timeline of treatments, exposures and behavioral assessments in Zucker rats

Injections

Peptide (SN..8 or LD.8) was dissolved in sterile saline (2 mg/kg) and SN.8 peptide vs. vehicle (sterile saline) or LD..8 peptide intraperitoneal (IP) injections were administered every other day according to the schedule shown in Figure 1. Peptide (SN.8) (vs. saline or LD..8) injections commenced 1-week prior to surgery/injury in ZDF rats to prevent (excess) acute post-injury mortality in ZDF rats thought to be related (in part) to pre-injury moderate hypertension. The peptide SN..8 was previously reported to substantially lower blood pressure in the ZDF rat [8].

Surgeries/Injury

All animals underwent a surgical procedure to attach a luer-lock connector to a craniectomy, positioned either on the left or right parietal bone plate. Rats were anesthetized with 1-4% isoflurane (5 L/min O₂ for 60 s) and transferred to a stereotactic instrument with 1-4% isoflurane mixed with 1-1.5 L/min O₂delivered via a nosecone to maintain anesthesia throughout the surgery. A craniectomy (2 mm in diameter, centered at 3 mm posterior to bregma and 3.5 mm lateral to midline) was made in the skull and super glue was used to secure a luer-lock connector around the edge of the craniectomy. A plastic cylinder (cut from a 10 mL syringe) was placed on the skull surrounding the luer-lock connector; this was placed to provide stability and protect the area around the craniectomy. Dental cement was used to fill the space in between the connector and the plastic cylinder. A small amount of sterile saline was deposited into the connector along with a small piece of Kimwipe to keep the dura clean of debris.

One day following implantation of the surgical hub, fluid percussion injury is achieved with a device using a computer-controlled voice-coil to deliver defined pressure waves to the dura through a water piston [9]. Water is first placed in the surgical cap to prevent any air displacing the pressure waves. Rats were anesthetized with isoflurane in an induction chamber followed by fluid percussion injury or sham. The injury procedure occurs one day after surgery to prevent the dura from drying out and thereby reducing the injury of the brain tissue. Mild to moderate severity TBI will occur at pressure amplitudes of 20-30 psi (±3 psi) and rates of rise between 10-20 ms. To reduce the effects of anesthesia as much as possible, rats are connected to the device by the syringe hub and allowed to recover from anesthesia until they respond lightly to a foot pinch before injury occurs. Therefore, the rats were lightly anesthetized at the time of injury. Sham rats are treated the same way as injured rats including isoflurane anesthesia and connection of the device to the rat, but the pressure wave was not delivered. The animal is monitored for startle in response to the pressure wave and then placed on its back in a recovery cage and evaluated for apnea. Latency for the righting reflex to return is recorded and used as an index of traumatic unconsciousness.

Behavioral Tests

Morris Water Maze

The Morris water maze is a test of short-term recall of a spatial learning task. Zucker lean and fatty rats subjected to sham vs. traumatic brain injury were tested for the ability to locate a submerged platform in a swimming pool. Sample phase corresponds to acquisition of learning; the choice phase measures recall of newly-acquired spatial learning task. Distance is a measure of how far the rats swam before locating the submerged swim platform. Longer distance (choice phase) is indicative of impairment of recall of short-term spatial learning acquired in the sample phase. Path efficiency (efficiency) is the ratio of the shortest path to the platform vs. the actual swim path taken by the animal. Maximum path efficiency has a value of 1.0 and is a measure of recall of swim platform location.

Delayed Match to Position in Morris Water Maze

Before injury, the animals underwent extensive training in the Morris water maze apparatus. The delayed match to position (DMTP) test is a short-term recall of a spatial memory task. Rats were tested for the ability to locate a submerged platform in a swimming pool. The swimming pool was made opaque by non-toxic paint (Crayola washable paint, 16 oz, white 54-2016-053). Submerged in the pool was a platform on which the rat could escape from swimming, with the surface of the escape platform approximately 1 cm below the surface of the water. During the first acclimation session, the rat was initially placed on the platform and allowed to remain on the platform for 10 – 20 seconds. In subsequent training trials, the rat was placed further from the escape platform so that the rats learned that there was a place to escape from swimming, learned to climb onto the escape platform, and acclimated to swimming in the pool. During this training phase, the escape platform was in the same location and rats were started twice from 3 distinct locations (6 trials/session). Rats were trained for 4 days with one session per day. Each trial lasted a maximum of 60 seconds and if the rat had not located the platform during that time the rat was led to the platform using a wooden stick. The rat was then allowed to climb onto the platform where they remained for 10-20 seconds. After this, the rat was dried and moved to a holding cage with a heater if necessary.

One day after the 4th training session, a single probe trial was given in which the platform was removed from the pool and the rat was allowed to swim from one of the start locations for 60 seconds, after which the rat was removed from the pool, dried, and placed back in the home cage. For both training and probe sessions, the swim path of the rat was recorded and analyzed for multiple measures to assess spatial learning using AnyMaze (AnyMaze version 6.21 (64-bit) (Stoelting Co., 620 Wheat Lange, Wood Dale, IL 60191 USA).

Testing of spatial working memory commenced approximately 2-3 days after the probe trial using a DMTP procedure that consisted of 6 trials per rat with each trial having two phases, a sample phase and a choice phase. At the beginning of each trial, an animal entered sample phase by being placed in the water at a novel start position and has 60 seconds maximum swim time to find the platform. After either successfully finding the platform or being led to it after the 60 seconds swim time, the rat was left on the platform for 15 seconds, and then returned to its home cage for 30 seconds. That same animal then began choice phase, was placed back in the water at the same location as in sample phase and had 60 seconds maximum swim time to locate the platform. Each trial has a novel combination of start and platform positions. All rats were tested at the same start-platform positions. The pool was divided by AnyMaze into three equal-area zones, covering 120° of circumference each. At the beginning of the sample phase, each rat was placed in the water facing the perimeter of the tank in a selected zone. The escape platform was in a different zone than that of the start position and remained in that zone for both phases. The rat was allowed a maximum of 60 seconds to find the platform. After either successfully finding the platform or being led to it after 60 seconds, the rat was left on the platform for 10-20 seconds, and then returned to its home cage for approximately 30 seconds. The same animal then began the choice phase, where it was placed back in the water at the same start location as in sample phase and allowed 60 seconds to locate the platform. On each subsequent trial, the starting location and the platform location were changed across trials, not within trials, within the session. Approximately 1 hour separated each trial.

The swim path was recorded for later analysis. One to two days of working memory testing was required. Swim Distance was used as a measure of how far the rats swam before locating the submerged swim platform.

Statistics

Student’s t-test for single comparisons, two-way ANOVA for differences between two or more factors (strain, injury, drug) and their interaction, and repeated measures ANOVA for differences over time (pre-injury, 1-week, 1-month and 3-months post injury). The post hoc Bonferroni test was employed in all ANOVA. All statistical analyses were conducted using the SPSS software. A P-value <0.05 was considered significant and values are expressed as means ± SEM.

Results

Morris Water Maze – A Test of Spatial Memory

In fatty and lean Zucker rats exposed to TBI, distance (needed to locate swim platform) in the choice phase (CP) significantly exceeded that of sham-injured Zucker rats (Figure 2A and 2B) (F(1,12)=8.314, p=0.014) indicative of TBI-associated spatial memory impairment. In a repeated measures ANOVA, there was a trend of a significant time x injury interaction, F(3,36)=2.401, p=0.084, which did not reach statistical significance. Path efficiency was significantly lower in fatty vs. lean Zucker rats at all timepoints post-baseline (Figure 3) including TBI and sham-injured fatty rats. These data suggest factors associated with obesity, hypertension and type 2 diabetes likely contribute to accelerated decline in cognitive function (spatial memory recall) in fatty vs. age-matched lean Zucker rats.

Figure 2: Delayed match to position in the Morris water maze: distance (meters) as a function of time before and after injury in Zucker lean and fatty rats. Results are mean ± SEM. Distance was determined by Any Maze software as described in Methods. Fatty: sham (N=6), tbi (N=6) Lean: Sham (N=9), tbi (N=8).

Figure 3: Delayed match to position in the Morris water maze: path efficiency as a function of time before and after injury in Zucker lean and fatty rats. Results are mean ± SEM. Path efficiency was determined by Any Maze software as described in Methods. Fatty (N=12); Lean (N=17) rats.

Effect of Short-term Peptide Administration on Spatial Memory

Peptide (SCLLADDN=SN..8) was administered to fatty rats (every other day) for seven days before and after injury and in lean rats for seven days after injury. The fatty rats received three additional doses of SN..8 or saline (before injury) because of prior work showing that SN..8 significantly lowered blood pressure in ZDF rats and appeared cardioprotective [8]. Zucker diabetic fatty (vs. lean) rats experienced a disproportionate excess mortality associated with TBI which was reduced by pre-treatment with SN..8 (Grinberg M, Burton J, Pang K, Zimering MB, unpublished observations). Path efficiency difference is defined as [choice phase efficiency – sample phase efficiency] and is a measure of the strength of spatial memory recall. One-week post-injury, SN..8 peptide-treated, sham-injured fatty and lean Zucker rats displayed significantly larger gain in path efficiency difference compared to saline-treated, sham-injured fatty and lean rats (F(1,10)=5.777, p=0.037) (Figure 4). There was a significant (drug x injury) interaction F(2,20)=4.442, P=0.025. Post-hoc Bonferroni test showed significantly higher (one-week) path efficiency difference in Sham, SN..8-treated vs. Sham, Saline-treated Zucker rats (P_bonf=0.039) (Figure 4). Our sample size (N=29) was only powered to detect two-way, but not three-way interactions. There was no significant (strain x drug) interaction F(2,23)=0.584, P=0.566. There was no significant (strain x injury) interaction F(1,25)=0.328, P=0.572.

Figure 4: Delayed match to position in the Morris water maze: Path efficiency difference at 1-week post injury in Zucker fatty and lean rats. Path efficiency difference was calculated as described in Methods and is a measure of the strength of recall of spatial learning. Results are mean ± SEM. Sham (N=9); TBI (N=11). Sham, saline (N=5), Sham, P4 (N=4), TBI, saline (N=4), TBI, P4 (N=7). P4= SN..8 peptide.

Cohorts 1 and 2 combined sample size (N=29 rats) lacked sufficient power to detect statistically significant differences in behavior in peptide- vs. saline-treated rats analyzed at repeated intervals following injury. Next we tested three additional cohorts of Zucker fatty (N=22) and lean rats (N=12), total N=34 rats in the Morris water maze using an identical (2 mg/kg) concentration of scrambled peptide (LD..8) as control for SN..8 peptide treatment. Duration to locate the swim platform in the choice phase (CP) was an outcome measure of (recall of spatial learning), in a repeated measures ANOVA (preinjury, 1-week, and 1-month post-injury) which demonstrated a main effect of time, F(2, 56)=6.214, P=0.004 (Figure 5). There was a main effect of strain F(1,28)=7.797, P=0.009 with leans requiring less time than fatty Zucker rats to locate the platform. There was a main effect of injury F(1,28)=11.300, P=0.002 with sham-injured rats requiring less time than TBI rats to locate the platform (Figure 5). There was a significant time x injury interaction F(2,56)=9.584, P < 0.001, post-hoc: sham, 1 week x tbi, 1 week, P bonf <0.001 & sham, 1 month x tbi, 1 month, P bonf=.013.

Figure 5: Delayed match to position in the Morris water maze: duration in the choice phase CP (recall of spatial learning) as a function of time before and after injury in Zucker lean (N=12) and fatty rats (N=22). Results are mean ± SEM. Duration (seconds) was determined by Any Maze software as described in Methods.

Duration (to locate swim platform) in the Sample Phase (SP) was a measure of (spatial learning acquisition). A repeat measures ANOVA of duration in the sample phase demonstrated main effects of strain (F(1,28)=12.613, P=0.001 with leans having reduced duration compared to Zucker fatty rats; and injury F(1, 28)=9.335, P=0.005 with sham-injured rats having reduced duration compared to TBI (Figure 6A). There was a significant injury x drug interaction F(1,28)=7.788, p=0.009 with sham, SN..8-treated animals having shorter duration (to locate platform) than sham, scrambled-LD..8-treated rats (P bonf=0.001), (Figure 6B). There was no significant difference in post-hoc tests of TBI, SN..8 vs. TBI, LD..8-treated rats (Figure 6B). There was a significant (strain x drug) interaction F(1,28)=4.589; P=0.041 (Figure 6C). In post-hoc testing, fatty P4 had significantly higher SP duration than lean P4; P _bonf=0.002; and fatty, scrambled had significantly higher SP duration than lean P4; P_bonf=0.021 (Figure 6C). There was no significant (strain x injury) interaction F(1,25)=0.328; P=0.572. Sample size limitations prevented testing for a strain x drug x injury interaction.

Figure 6: Delayed match to position in the Morris water maze: duration in the sample phase SP (acquisition of spatial learning) as a function of time, A) and injury or B) peptide (P4= SN..8, scrambled = LD..8) treatment group or C) strain before and after injury in Zucker lean (N=12) and fatty rats (N=22). Results are mean ± SEM. Duration was determined by Any Maze software as described in Methods.

In vitro Neuroprotection by SN.8 in Mouse Neuroblastoma N2A cells

The SN..8 peptide dose-dependently inhibited Zucker lean heterozygote rat Ig-induced neurite retraction in vitro exhibiting an IC₅₀ of ~ 9 mg/L (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Dose-dependent inhibition of N2A neurite retraction from 100 nanomolar concentration of Zucker heterozygous lean by SN..8. Neurite retraction assay were performed as described in Methods. Results are mean ± SEM.

Mechanism of Action of SCLLADDN (SN….8) Peptide

The precise mechanism of SN..8 peptide’s in vitro and in vivo neuroprotective action is unknown. We had proposed that the epitope-specific SN..8 peptide may act as a ‘decoy’ which directly binds 5-HT2AR agonist IgG preventing receptor activation. Although we can’t exclude this possibility, we now provide evidence for an additional possible mechanism. Using linear synthetic peptides containing an alanine substitution for a highly conserved cysteine at EL2.50 (Ballesteros-Weinstein residue numbering system [10]) SALLADDN or for an aspartic acid residue at position EL2.55 (SCLLADAN) we compared the in vitro neuroprotective effects (Gq11/IP-mediated neurite retraction) of mutant vs. ‘wild-type’ SCLLADDN peptide. A 50-100 nanomolar concentration of Zucker heterozygous lean rat IgG caused 50% acute N2A neurite retraction which was completely prevented by co-incubation with twenty mg/mL concentration of wild-type SN..8 (Figure 8). Pre-incubation of IgG with twenty mg/mL concentration of either ‘C to A’ or ‘D to A’ mutant peptides had no inhibitory effect on Zucker rat IgG-induced neurite retraction. Although (20 ug/mL) wild-type peptide alone had no effect on N2A neurite retraction, we found unexpectedly that incubation of N2A cells with a twenty mg/mL concentration of either ‘C to A’ or ‘D to A’ mutant peptides alone caused transient, reversible (after 5 minutes), Gq11/IP-mediated N2A neurite retraction (not shown in Figure 8).

Figure 8: Effect of targeted ‘C to A’ or ‘D to A’ amino acid substitutions in ‘wild-type’ SCLLADDN peptide on the resulting mutant peptides’ (SALLADDN) or (SCLLADAN) ability to prevent acute N2A neurite retraction in the presence of 50-100 nanomolar concentration of Zucker heterozygous lean rat IgG. Results are mean ± SEM of three experiments. Similar results were obtained in experiments using the IgG fraction of plasma from four different middle-aged human TBI patients. Neurite retraction assay in mouse N2A neuroblastoma cells was carried out as described in Methods.

The wild-type SCLLADDN (SN..8) is identical to a subregion of the second extracellular loop (ECL) of the human serotonin 2A receptor reported by Wacker et al [11] to function as a ‘lid’ modulating the ingress and egress of ligands into and out of the 5HT2(B, or A) receptor’s orthosteric binding pocket (OBP). For example, closure of the lid prevented egress of the hallucinogenic ligand lysergic acid diethylamine (LSD) from the OBP causing an unusually long off-reaction time of LSD at the 5HT2B and 5HT2A receptors [11]. Mobility of the lid peptide is dependent on its specific amino acid residues which in turn determines the kinetics of the open and closed receptor conformations [11]. The lid function is conserved among many different aminergic GPCRs [12] and a highly conserved cysteine residue EL2.50 involved in intrachain disulfide bonding normally prevents constitutive aminergic GPCR activation [12]. The observation that C to A (SCLLADDN to SALLADDN) or D to A (SCLLADDN to SCLLADAN) single amino acid residue substitution(s) each led to transient constitutive receptor Gq11/IP activation (in the presence of serotonin in the culture medium) is of interest since it suggests a possible direct effect of exogenously administered short lid peptides on stabilizing an active vs. inactive conformation of the receptor. We speculate that cysteine-containing ‘wild-type’ SN..8 (SCLLADDN) may spontaneously form aggregates important in antigen-antibody binding or which interfere with hydrogen bonding between GPCR transmembrane helices [13] required for receptor activation. The Asp at position EL 2.54, shown in bold SCLLADDN in the wild-type peptide, is also highly conserved among family A GPCRs [13] and it mediates hydrogen bonding between helix 2 and helix 7 underlying receptor activation [13]. Replacement of the adjacent Asp (EL2.55) with Ala to form SCLLADAN may have led to a more highly mobile lid peptide which mediated transient receptor activation by increasing the probability of hydrogen bonding between helices 2 and 7. To our knowledge, these are the first data suggesting that small peptide mimics of an aminergic GPCR receptor ‘lid’ region in which key amino acid residues (Cys EL2.50 or Asp 2.55) have been replaced by alanine not only mediate transient receptor activation, but also abrogate neuroprotection associated with ‘wild type’ SN…8 lid peptide.

Discussion

Obese type 2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension are associated with accelerated age-related cognitive decline in older adults [14], and in a recent study of lifelong TBI-sufferers, (obesity and hypertension) were significant predictors of an increased hazard rate for the occurrence of major depressive disorder, Parkinson’s disease or dementia [3]. The Zucker fatty rat is a widely-used genetic model of morbid obesity [4]. Morbid obesity promotes peripheral inflammation associated with increased risk for neuropsychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders in humans [15], yet there have been relatively few prior neurobehavioral studies in the Zucker fatty rat strain which might shed light on underlying mechanisms.

Here we report that the Zucker diabetic hypertensive fatty rat experienced significantly greater spontaneous decline in spatial memory compared to age-matched lean Zucker rats.

It is not clear to what extent diabetes or hypertension (in Zucker fatty rats) may have affected the rate of decline in recall of spatial memory. In human studies, older adult type 2 diabetes populations experienced increased rate(s) of decline in executive function and processing speed; and hypertension, hypertriglyceridemia, and diabetes duration, (but not glucose level per se) was each a significant predictor of accelerated cognitive decline [14]. Severe hypertriglyceridemia which paralleled the development of morbid obesity in Zucker fatty rat may have contributed in part to observed sub-strain behavioral differences. In a prior report, male albino rats on a high-fat (vs. normal diet) developed obesity, and elevated lipid profile and had worse performance (on spatial memory task) in the Morris water maze [16] suggesting a role for metabolic factors in the Zucker fatty rat spatial memory impairment.

It is unclear how the SN..8 serotonin 2A receptor peptide fragment mediated its apparent in vivo neuroprotective effects, but one possibility may involve hippocampal neurogenesis. Neurogenesis occurs in the dentate gyrus (DG) region of the hippocampus in adult mammals, and it affects acquisition and recall of spatial learning [17]. Hippocampal neural progenitor cells (NPC) develop in a unique vascular niche [18] exposed to the general circulation. Circulating serotonin 2A receptor modulatory Ig (from morbidly-obese, and adult diabetic patients and in Zucker rats) not only had anti-endothelial effects [19] which could adversely impact neurogenesis, but also adversely affected the maturation, survival and electrical excitability of rat dentate gyrus NPC in vitro [20]. Serotonergic receptors expressed in the hippocampus have a well-established role in the regulation of mood and emotional disorders [21]. In addition, systemic administration of 5-HT2A receptor agonists (psilocin, or TCB-2) in rodents significantly impaired spatial memory recall in the Morris water maze (MWM) [22]. Taken together, it is possible that SN..8 peptide administration could act at the level of the dentate gyrus region of the hippocampus in modulating neurogenesis important in both acquisition and recall of spatial memory.

Another major hormone system which influences dentate gyrus neurogenesis are glucocorticoid (GR) and Mineralocorticoid Receptors (MR). Both receptors are highly expressed in hippocampal brain regions [23] and participate in the complex regulation of the effects of stress on the hypothalamic/pituitary/adrenal axis. It is possible that stress associated with mild TBI (LFP) causes greater GR activation in the hippocampus leading to stronger suppression of neurogenesis compared to sham-injury. An SN.8 peptide which targets the serotonin 2AR may have little effect on GR-induced suppression of neurogenesis. A future study of serotonergic and glucocorticoid receptor expression in Zucker rat brain following sham vs. TBI is needed to clarify the underlying mechanisms. A possible role for DG neurogenesis in mediating the putative neuroprotective effects of a serotonin 2A receptor peptide on acquisition and recall of spatial learning also requires more direct study.

Our data that a 5HT2AR-specific lid peptide SCLLADDN (SN..8) significantly enhanced acquisition of spatial memory and strength of spatial memory recall (1-week post-injury in sham-injured rats) is consistent with the possibility that the receptor peptide may prevent 5HT2A receptor activation by endogenous 5-HT2AR ligand agonists including possibly circulating 5HT2AR agonist IgG.

Taken together, these data suggest that a novel serotonin 2A receptor peptide may have neuroprotective effects in sham-injured Zucker rats under conditions in which hippocampal neurogenesis is not already strongly suppressed by other hormonal factors principally, increased hippocampal GR and possibly MR activity in obese, hypertensive Zucker rats [24,25].

In summary, systemic administration of a small peptide mimic of the 5HT2A receptor lid peptide appeared to confer neuroprotective effects on acquisition and strengthening of recall of spatial learning tasks in sham-injured Zucker rats. Larger studies are needed to confirm these preliminary results and further test for any possible strain differences. Injections of both SN..8 and LD..8 peptides were well-tolerated and not associated with chronic pain, or local tissue injury. TBI was associated with greater impairments in spatial memory recall, and the neuroprotective peptide appeared less likely to significantly modulate the behavioral impairment(s) in brain-injured Zucker rats, especially fatty rats susceptible to the additional adverse cognitive effects of abnormal metabolic factors.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported in part by a grant CBIR 22 PIL022 from the New Jersey Commission on Brain Injury Research (Trenton, NJ) to MBZ, and by grants from the Technology Transfer Program/BLRD, Office of Research and Development, Department of Veterans Affairs (Washington, DC) to MBZ. The opinions expressed herein are solely those of the authors and do not reflect the official position of the US Government.

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Reversal of Early Increased Anxiety-Like Behavior in the Zucker Fatty versus Lean Rat: Possible Role of Acquired Hormonal Factors

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DOI: 10.31038/EDMJ.2023724

Introduction

Anxiety and depression increase substantially after traumatic brain injury (TBI) in humans. They are among the most common early neuropsychiatric complications of TBI [1] contributing to substantial morbidity and mortality. Owing to the current global epidemic of obesity [2], a possible role for obesity in the development of anxiety disorders has received increased attention [3]. In a recent study of TBI in humans, obesity was a significant predictor of an increased risk for the later occurrence of a composite neurodegeneration endpoint comprised of major depression and suicide, Parkinson’s disease or dementia [4]. Yet few prior studies in have explored the relationship between obesity, TBI and anxiety disorders. Here we used the Zucker fatty rat strain, a genetic model of obesity harboring homozygous mutations in the leptin receptor gene (fa/fa) [5] and Zucker lean (Fa/fa/?) rats to test a commonly-held notion that obesity is a risk factor for anxiety-like disorders. We also tested whether mild traumatic injury (induced by lateral fluid percussion-LFP) (vs. sham injury) modifies anxiety-like behavior in obese vs. lean Zucker rats.

Obesity in rats age (8-12 weeks old) was recently reported to be associated with heightened anxiety-like behavior compared to age-matched obese-resistant genetic strains [6]. Since anxiety-like behavior was not correlated with body weight (in the study) the authors concluded that acquired (vs. genetic factors) may play a less important role in the etiology of anxiety [6]. In the current study, we tested rats for anxiety-like behavior at different times in the developmental cycle to further evaluate a possible role for chronic acquired factors (related to obesity and diabetes) in anxiety-like behavior. Current drug therapy for anxiety disorders modulates serotoninergic signaling at central synapses in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus and other brain regions. We also conducted an exploratory test of whether systemic administration of a novel, putative neuroprotective synthetic peptide fragment of the human serotonin 2A receptor (SN..8) may modulate anxiety-like behavior in Zucker fatty (vs. lean) rats exposed to mild TBI (vs. sham injury).

Materials and Methods

Peptides

A linear synthetic peptide, SCLLADDN (SN..8) having a sequence identical to that of a fragment of the second extracellular loop region of the human 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor was synthesized at Lifetein, Inc (Hillsborough, NJ) and had > 95% purity. A scrambled peptide containing the same amino acids as SCLLADDN had a sequence of LASNDCLD (LD.8) and a purity of 96.37%, MW 849.91. The lyophilized peptides were stored (in the presence of dessicant) at −40 degrees C prior to use. On the day of an experiment, an aliquot of lyophilized peptide was reconstituted in sterile saline at the indicated concentration. Reconstituted peptide(s) were prepared fresh before each experiment.

Animals

Injections

Peptide (SN..8 or LD.8) was dissolved in sterile saline (2 mg/kg) and SN.8 peptide vs. vehicle (sterile saline) or LD..8 peptide intraperitoneal (IP) injections were ad-ministered every other day. Peptide (SN.8) (vs. saline or LD..8) injections commenced 1-week prior to surgery/injury in ZDF rats to minimize the risk of excess acute post-injury mortality in ZDF rats thought to be related (in part) to pre-injury moderate hypertension. The peptide SN..8 was previously reported to substantially lower blood pressure in the ZDF rat [7].

Surgeries/Injury

All animals underwent a surgical procedure to attach a luer-lock connector to a craniectomy, positioned either on the left or right parietal bone plate. Rats were anesthetized with 1-4% isoflurane (5 L/min O2 for 60s) and transferred to a stereotactic instrument with 1-4% isoflurane mixed with 1-1.5 L/min O2 delivered via a nosecone to maintain anesthesia throughout the surgery. A craniectomy (2mm in diameter, centered at 3mm posterior to bregma and 3.5mm lateral to midline) was made in the skull and super glue was used to secure a luer-lock connector around the edge of the craniectomy. A plastic cylinder (cut from a 10mL syringe) was placed on the skull surrounding the luer-lock connector; this was placed to provide stability and protect the area around the craniectomy. Dental cement was used to fill the space in between the connector and the plastic cylinder. A small amount of sterile saline was deposited into the connector along with a small piece of Kimwipe to keep the dura clean of debris.

One day following implantation of the surgical hub, fluid percussion injury is achieved with a device using a computer-controlled voice-coil to deliver defined pressure waves to the dura through a water piston [8]. Water is first placed in the surgical cap to prevent any air displacing the pressure waves. Rats were anesthetized with isoflurane in an induction chamber followed by fluid percussion injury or sham. The injury procedure occurs one day after surgery to prevent the dura from drying out and thereby reducing the injury of the brain tissue. Mild to moderate severity TBI will occur at pressure amplitudes of 20-30 psi (±3 psi) and rates of rise between 10-20 milliseconds. To reduce the effects of anesthesia as much as possible, rats are connected to the device by the syringe hub and allowed to recover from anesthesia until they respond lightly to a foot pinch before injury occurs. Therefore, the rats were lightly anesthetized at the time of injury. Sham rats are treated the same way as injured rats including isoflurane anesthesia and connection of the device to the rat, but the pressure wave was not delivered. The animal is monitored for startle in response to the pressure wave and then placed on its back in a recovery cage and evaluated for apnea. Latency for the righting reflex to return is recorded and used as an index of traumatic unconsciousness.

Behavioral Tests

Open Field Test. Rats were placed in the center of a round, gray, open field apparatus (diameter of 74 cm, height of 51 cm). A light (120 W) was located 135 cm directly above the center of the apparatus which had a measured light intensity, LT300-NIST Light Meter (Extech Instruments, Knoxville, TN) of 400-500 lux. The open field apparatus was placed in a novel environment. The path of the rat in the open field was recorded, digitized, analyzed, and stored on a computer using AnyMaze version 6.21 (64-bit) (Stoelting Co., 620 Wheat Lange, Wood Dale, IL 60191 USA). For analysis, the open field was separated into two zones, the center, and the periphery. The center zone was measured to have the area of the total field (diameter of approximately 52.32 cm). Performance in the open field was scored during a 3-minute time window before returning the animal to its home cage. The apparatus was wiped with 70% ethanol solution between testing of each rat. Increased mobility in the center zone, defined as distance, speed, and time in motion, was used as an indicator of reduced anxiety, whereas staying in the peripheral zone, was used as an indicator of increased anxiety [9].

Statistical Analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using the Student’s t-test for single comparisons and one-way ANOVA for differences between more than two groups followed by post hoc Bonferroni tests. All statistical analyses were conducted using the SPSS software. A p-value <0.05 was considered significant and values are expressed as means ± SEM.

Results

Open Field Test – Bright Light

Twenty-two rats were initially tested 1.5 months post-injury (i.e. at 18=19 weeks of age). An ANOVA demonstrated a main effect of strain, P=0.037 (Figure 1). Sham-injured Zucker fatty rats spent more time in center (mean 82 ± 10 sec) compared to sham-injured Zucker lean rats (mean 55 ± 7 sec) (Figure 1A and 1B). The preliminary study of anxiety-like behavior was only powered to test for main effects. Still it suggested that Zucker fatty rats display reduced anxiety-like behavior when tested later in the developmental cycle.

Figure 1: Center time (sec) in bright light in A) lean or B) fatty Zucker rats after sham- vs. mild TBI. A) Lean: Sham (N=7), TBI (N=6). B) Fatty: Sham (N=5), TBI (N=4).

Open Field Test – Under Dark Conditions (Mobility Test)

General mobility was assessed in the open field test performed under dark conditions. There were no significant differences in time in the center by strain (fatty vs. lean) or injury (sham vs. TBI) (Figure 2). These results suggest that the differences observed under bright light conditions were likely attributable to anxiety-like behavior.

Figure 2: Open field test under dark conditions, 1 month post-injury in Zucker lean and fatty rats. Results are mean ± SEM. Lean: Sham (N=7), TBI (N=6). Fatty: Sham (N=5), TBI (N=4).

Next, in a different cohort of Zucker fatty (N=22) and lean (N=12) rats, the open field test (under bright light) was performed before injury (11-12 weeks of age), 1-week after injury (15-16 weeks of age) and 1-month after injury (18-19 weeks of age). In a repeated measures ANOVA of center time at (preinjury, 1week and 1 month post-injury), there was a significant main effect of strain (F(1,26)=5.639, p=0.025) and a significant interaction effect of (time x strain) F(2,52)=8.248, p<0.001 (Figure 3). The post-hoc tests showed significant differences between fatty, preinjury vs. fatty, 1week post-injury (P_bonf=0.002) and between fatty, 1week post-injury vs. lean, 1week post-injury (P_bonf=0.023) (Figure 3). The fatty rats spent significantly more time in the center zone after injury compared to preinjury, and spent significantly more time in the center zone after injury than leans rats (Figure 3). There was no significant (strain x injury) interaction.

Figure 3: Center time: significant (strain x time) interaction. Each point is mean ± SEM

Mean difference (fatty vs. lean Zucker rats) in center time (Figure 4) underwent a ‘reversal’ after 11-12 weeks and before 15-16 weeks of age. At the earlier timepoint fatty rats had higher anxiety and later underwent a shift to reduced anxiety-like behavior (vs. lean rats). Zucker fatty rats acquired body weight significantly more rapidly than lean rats between 7-12.5 weeks of age (Figure 5), however injury (sham or TBI) which occurred at 13 weeks of age (Figure 6, arrowhead) contributed to a temporary ‘fall off’ in the normal trajectory of weight gain in Zucker fatty rats (Figure 5). Severe hyperglycemia in Zucker fatty rats (16 weeks and older) may have also contributed to a slowing in the relative trajectory of weight gain in fatty vs. lean (normoglycemic) Zucker rats (Figure 5).

Figure 4: Developmental ‘onset’ of reduced anxiety-like behavior in fatty vs. lean Zucker rats. Data are mean ± SEM.

Figure 5: Change in body weight in Zucker lean and fatty rats across development and injury (arrowhead). Arrows signify pre-injury, 1-week post and 1-month post-injury timepoints. Each point is mean ± SEM.

Overall mean speed, and exploratory behavior (distance traveled) were unexpectedly significantly higher in fatty vs. lean Zucker rats (Figure 6A and 6B) and immobility time was significantly reduced in fatty vs. lean Zucker rats (Figure 6C), assessed 1-week after injury. Mean distance traveled (Figure 7A) was significantly higher in Zucker fatty (vs. lean rats), before and 1-week post injury. Total immobility time was significantly reduced, before injury, 1 week, and 1 month post-injury, in Zucker fatty vs. lean rats (Figure 7B). Taken together, center time in the open-field test under bright light conditions (a measure of anxiety-like behavior) was unexpectedly decreased in Zucker fatty (vs. lean) rats at 15-16 weeks of age and older and could not be accounted for by strain differences in general mobility, or exploratory behavior.

Figure 6: One week after injury: A) Mean speed and B) distance traveled were both significantly higher in fatty vs. lean Zucker rats; C) total time immobile was significantly higher in lean vs. fatty Zucker rats.

Figure 7: A) Zucker fatty (vs. lean) rats traveled significantly greater distance before and 1-week after injury B) Zucker lean (vs. fatty) rats had significantly greater immobility at all three timepoints before and after injury. * P < 0.05.

A novel small peptide medication (SN..8) comprised of a fragment of the second extracellular loop of the human 5HT2AR prevented 5HT2AR activation on mouse neuroblastoma cells in vitro. Unlike direct antagonist 5HT2AR medications which promote significant weight gain, chronic administration (for 13 weeks or longer) of SN..8 (vs. an inactive scrambled version of the peptide – LD..8) did not cause significant weight gain in Zucker rats [7]. We next tested whether systemic (intraperitoneal) administration of SN..8 (vs. LD.8) may affect anxiety-like behavior in (sham-injury vs. TBI) Zucker rats.

There were no significant differences in center time between fatty vs. lean Zucker rats subjected to (sham- vs. TBI injury) or (SN..8 vs. scrambled peptide) treatment, i.e. 2 mg/kg, IP every other day when assessed either 1 -week after injury (Figure 8) or 1-month after injury (Figure 9). In repeated measures ANOVA of center time, there was no significant (drug x injury) or (drug x strain) interaction (data not shown). Still, the sample sizes were small and had reduced power to detect possible statistically significant difference(s) in drug (SN.. 8 vs. LD.8) or injury (sham vs. TBI) effects on anxiety-like behavior.

Figure 8: SN..8 (vs. scrambled peptide) treatment did not significantly modify time in center in lean or fatty rats evaluated a A) 1 week after sham injury or B) 1 week after mild TBI. Data are mean ± SEM.

Figure 9: SN..8 (vs. scrambled peptide) treatment did not significantly modify time in center in lean or fatty rats evaluated a A) 1 month after sham injury or B) 1 month after mild TBI. Data are mean ± SEM.

Discussion

Obesity has reached epidemic proportions in the United States and other parts of the world [2]. Anxiety and depressive disorders rank very high among conditions contributing to morbidity and mortality. Understanding biological links between obesity and anxiety or depressive disorders is of considerable public health importance. Among lifelong TBI-sufferers, obesity caused in part by a sedentary lifestyle and medications useful in treatment-refractory depression is both common and appeared to increase the risk for later occurrence of a composite neurodegenerative disease outcome including severe depression [4]. In a prior study that compared rats fed a standard diet vs. high-fat Western diet (leading to obesity), obesity was reported to increased anxiety-like behavior in the high-fat diet fed rats [10]. One proposed mechanism linking obesity to anxiety is increased inflammation [3]. In a different study that compared obese-prone vs. obese-resistant rat strains at 8-12 weeks of age, the Zucker fatty rat had lower exploratory activity, lower general mobility and decreased center time in the open field test (i.e. increased anxiety-like behavior) compared to several different obese-resistant rat strains, but not including Zucker lean rats [6]. In the present study, we compared obese and lean Zucker rats having similar overall genetic background, but differing at the leptin receptor locus (i.e. fa/fa vs. Fa/?). At 8-12 weeks of age, anxiety-like behavior was significant increased in fatty vs. lean Zucker rats perhaps consistent with prior reports of a role for inflammation and obesity [6,10]. However, when the open field test was conducted at later developmental age(s) in the present study, anxiety-like behavior was significantly reduced in fatty vs. Zucker rats. This may be indicative of development change in one or more receptors in the Zucker fatty rat brain important in mediating anxiety-like behavior.

The serotonin 2A receptor and the serotonin 1A receptor play opposing roles in the regulation of anxiety and depression [11]. Increased activity in the 5HT2AR in certain brain regions is associated with increased anxiety and depression [12] and several existing FDA-approved 5HT2AR antagonist medications are effective in treatment-resistant depression. On the other hand, sustained activity in the 5HT1A receptor underlies (in part) the anxiolytic and anti-depressant effect of SSRI medications [13].

Both 5-HT2AR and mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) are expressed in cortical brain regions and have a role in anxiety-like behavior. For example, cortical expression of 5HT2A, -B, -C receptors was identical in ‘high anxiety’ Lewis vs. ‘low anxiety’ SHR rat strains [14], however, cortical Gq11/IP accumulation (via 5HT2A, B or C receptors) was substantially higher in the ‘high anxiety’ Lewis rat [15]. Rozeboom et al. [16] reported that transgenic mice harboring chronic increased forebrain mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) expression displayed reduced anxiety-like behavior (vs. wild-type mice). Forebrain MR overexpression led to increased CA1 hippocampal expression of the 5HT1A receptor (important in mediating anxiolysis) and reduced hippocampal expression of the glucocorticoid receptor (important in mediating the stress response). Zucker fatty (vs. lean) rat were reported to have two-fold higher level of plasma aldosterone [17] (at 25 weeks of age) owing in part to obesity-associated hypertension, and to activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone as a result of severe insulin resistance, hyperglycemia and insulin deficiency [18]. Taken together, morbid obesity- and diabetes-associated hormonal changes may cause increased brain MR activity (in the Zucker fatty rat) resulting in increased hippocampal expression of the 5HT1A receptor and decreased glucocorticoid expression – both mediating anxiolysis. Future study can directly test for changes in the hippocampal expression level of the 5HT1A and glucocorticoid receptor in Zucker fatty vs. lean rat brain, and its developmental onset and possible modulation by sham-injury vs. TBI.

A limitation of the present study is that subgroups of rats treated with SN..8 (vs. LD..8) and subjected to sham-injury vs. TBI may have been too small in their number(s) to detect significant differences in anxiety-like behavior. Zucker diabetic fatty rats (ZDF) spontaneously harbor 5-HT2AR agonist autoantibodies causing Gq11/IP3 accumulation [19] and the ZDF Ig mediated neurotoxicity in vitro was nearly completely prevented by incubation (of neuroblastoma cells) with SN..8 [19]. If the circulating 5-HT2AR agonist Ig were able to access (anxiogenic) cortical 5HT2A receptors, e.g. following mild TBI and disruption of the blood brain barrier, SN..8 might prevent Ig-induced 5HT2AR activation. A larger study is needed to test whether preventing cortical 5HT2AR activation by Ig, with SN..8 (vs. LD..8) may have an anxiolytic effect in lean vs. fatty Zucker rats.

Acknowledgements

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The Quality of Ideas When AI (Artificial Intelligence) is Used as a Coaching Device

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DOI: 10.31038/ASMHS.2023721

Abstract

Four studies explored the subjective responses to text generated by AI versus text generated by a single individual. Each study focused on a topic (local pizza shop; local cleaner; local dentist; local school board). Each study comprised four sets of four elements each, viz., 16 elements, the elements being answers to simple questions pertaining to the topic. Each study comprised 30-31 respondents. The evaluation showed no decided advantage for AI generated information over human generated information when the rating was assigned on a simple 5-point Likert scale. The test process provides a way of inserting human evaluation into the text generated by people or by AI, and in turn opens up the potential of a standardized way to evaluate AI text using people.

Introduction

Today’s focus on hot new technologies must, by sheer popularity, include AI, artificial intelligence. AI is high on the Gartner hype cycle (Dedehayir & Steinert, 2016), perhaps due to it romanticized connotations as much to its performance. This paper is simply a study of how well AI can help a person think, or solve a problem, when AI is used as a ‘coaching device.’ At the same time this paper in being written in a time of ferment. Two decades ago Hill et. al., (2005), reported that “people communicated with the chatbot for longer durations (but with shorter messages) than they did with another human. Additionally, human–chatbot communication lacked much of the richness of vocabulary found in conversations among people and exhibited greater profanity. These results suggest that while human language skills transfer easily to human–chatbot communication, there are notable differences in the content and quality of such conversation”. The big story of 2022 is that AI has developed so quickly and powerfully that it is being used (or really misused) by students to write their college essays (Fyfe, 2022.).

The origins of this study come from three decades of work on systematic exploration of people’s responses to ideas, when these ideas are presented in combinations, in vignettes, with these vignettes created by experimental design. The origin of the work is the emerging science of Mind Genomics (Moskowitz et. al., 2012). Mind Genomics focuses on how people make decisions in the world of ordinary experience. The underlying approach of Mind Genomics is to choose a topic, then ask a set of four questions which present the topic in a story sequence, choose four answers to each question, creating 16 elements (element=answer). Finally, the Mind Genomics program (www.bimileap.com) creates combinations of these elements according to an underlying set of recipes, a so-called experimental design (Gofman & Moskowitz, 2010), presents these combinations to the respondent, obtains ratings, and uses regression analysis to deconstruct the responses into the contributions of the different elements.

The foregoing approach has been templated and is now easy to use. One recurring observation over the decades of use is that people simply freeze when they are instructed to create a set of four questions. That is, people may know how to answer questions, but again and again it is becoming clear that people don’t know how to frame questions. In other words, it may be that people simply don’t know how to think in a critical way, at least when critical thinking is defined in part as the ability to ask a set of coherent questions.

Introducing AI into Mind Genomics

Beginning around 2010, Mind Genomics was put on a path of developing a true DIY (do it yourself) system, with automatic set-up, automated recruiting using a panel company as a partner, and automated reporting. The effort finally materialized in 2017, with the set-up screens. The objective of the DIY was to have the researcher identify a topic for the study, then provide four questions, and finally four answers for each question.

Years of experience gave the authors the preparation to provide questions and answers with a fair degree of ease. It seemed to the authors that almost anyone should be able to think of four questions about a topic, but the authors were slowly disabused of that notion when users had to be ‘coached’, brought along, and only after the coaching and talking were the users comfortable. The unhappy reality was that the reluctance, or perhaps the real inability, to come up with questions was hindering the adoption of the Mind Genomics platform. Users simply abandoned the Mind Genomics effort, often after choosing a topic, and being confronted with what had seemed to be a perfect simple task of choosing questions.

During the many years of developing Mind Genomics, author HRM was asked many times whether the questions and answers could be put in somehow ‘automatically.’ The history of those questions would make an interesting article in itself, but the main thing to emerge was that people simply did not know how to think about topics in a critical way. Answering questions was very easy for people. In contrast, framing questions about a topic was off-putting. It seemed at first that people were being lazy, but the reality began to emerge that people were simply recognizing the need for a coach, for something to help them, preferably not a person.

The opportunity to create a ‘coaching’ system emerged during the middle of the past year, in 2022. At that time the Mind Genomics approach had become virtually a DIY system, as long as the respondent knew how to create the right questions, create the answers, create the orientation page, and the rating scale. The orientation page and rating scales were easy to learn and master. Creating questions and answers remained elusive, depending as much on the person’s confidence and topic-specific knowledge as it did on the person’s attitude towards these open ended explorations.

It would be the available of AI as an interface which provided the opportunity for enhancing Mind Genomics, perhaps removing the barrier of having to think of questions for a given topic. The underlying idea was to provide a ‘coaching mechanism’, effectively a device in which researchers could elaborate on a topic, with AI returning with up to 30 questions. The elaboration could be done several times, either with the same text or with different variations, until he researcher came up with questions which seemed relevant. Some or all of these questions could be selected, and ‘dropped’ into the question boxes. The researcher was free to edit the questions, and to provide questions that she or he wished to add, as long as the number of questions came to four. The second part of the coach allowed the researcher to select the coach, receive up to 15 answers to the question, and again repeat the process, selecting the best answers. The researcher could edit the answers, as well as incorporate her or his own answers.

It was the introduction of AI in this way, viz., as a coach, which reduced some of the hesitancy, making Mind Genomics more of a cut and paste operation in which the thinking was encouraged, but not made into a stumbling block. The researcher could be a child, even one eight years old or so. The fear factor of thinking was replaced by the excitement of the new information to appear, new questions to check, new answers to discover and select. The task became fun, at least to children. And, for adults, the delight may not have been so obvious, but the hesitation appeared to have been reduced, in some occasions dramatically.

AI Generated Ideas Versus Self-generated Ideas – Do They Differ in Quality?

The genesis of this paper emerged from ongoing conversations about the use of AI in studies. The question continue to emerge regarding the ‘quality’ of the ideas emerging from AI. The consumer researcher business continues to feature advertisements about AI in consumer research, although the underlying methods, viz. ‘under the hood’ are never revealed, nor are metrics. Yet despite the opacity of AI, the pattern is clear. It may only be a matter of time before AI catches up with the human being, and actually surpasses people (Grace et al. 2018). They write in stark terms that “AI will outperform humans in many activities in the next ten years, such as translating languages (by 2024), writing high-school essays (by 2026), driving a truck (by 2027), working in retail (by 2031), writing a bestselling book (by 2049), and working as a surgeon (by 2053). Researchers believe there is a 50% chance of AI outperforming humans in all tasks in 45 years and of automating all human jobs in 120 years “

A consequence of the popularity of AI, at least in the discussions among market researchers has led to the question of how one might measure the quality of ideas emerging from AI. Would the ideas be really better, producing insights that were the equal of good ideas produced by people, and hopefully better ideas? Or, when subject to standard researchers, such as Mind Genomics, would AI produced ideas perform worse than or equal to, but definitely not better than ideas of smart people. It was this last idea, head to head comparison to the performance of ideas generated by AI versus by people which gave rise to this paper.

Mind Genomics and the Head to Head Comparison of Ideas

Mind Genomics allows the researcher to measure the quality of the ideas, without anyone except the researcher knowing the source. The research project emerged as simple to do. In a few words, the idea was to choose a simple topic, and run the study exactly the same two times. The first time the researcher would create the study with no help at all. The second time the research would select the elements, the raw material, from Idea Coach. The same number of respondents would participate in the parallel studies, and the result compared in terms of performance.

There is no direct, absolute, non-subjective way to measure the quality of ideas. Thus, the ideas which emerge from one’s unaided efforts cannot be ‘objectively’ compared to the ideas which emerge from AI. AI may produce many more ideas, but on the basis of what can we assign values to these ideas? There is the old adage, a bit judgmental, and somewhat contemptuous, namely ‘GIGO, garbage in, garbage out.’ Given the prevalence of GIGO thinking, is possible to create a system to measure the value of ideas.

Mind Genomics may provide a solution to the above-mentioned problem. Keep in mind that there are two parts of the Mind Genomics exercise. The first part comes from the selection of the elements, whether from the person or from the combination of AI as the provider of the elements and the person as the selector of the elements. The second part comes from the evaluation of the elements, albeit combinations of elements, not single elements alone. The evaluation is one by real people who do not know how the elements were generated, rating each combination on a simple Likert scale, viz. an anchored scale. With this separation of idea generation from idea evaluation, it may be possible to measure the human subjective response to the ideas, and by so doing compare the performance of ideas generated by people to ideas generated by AI.

The Mind Genomics Process

Mind Genomics is an emerging science, focusing on the way people make decisions (REF). Mind Genomics grew out of a combination of three different disciplines; statistics, psychophysics, and consumer research, respectively. The underlying process has been documented a number of times (REF). In summary, the process follows these steps:

Step 1 – Define the topic, generate four questions, and for each question generate four answers. The term ‘element’ will be used instead of the term ‘answer.’ In effect, there are 16 elements in a Mind Genomics study. These questions and answers may be generated by the researcher, or may be generated using artificial intelligence. In this study, four of eight studies used questions and questions generated by the researcher, and the other four studies, with matching topics, used questions and answers generated by OpenAI’s language model “text-davinci-003” (https://beta.openai.com/docs/models/gpt-3).

The eight studies summarized in Table 1 were run with 30-31 respondents, all in the state of Connecticut, USA, with respondents aged 18-49 for the pizza studies, and 25-54 for the dry cleaner, dentist and school board candidate studies, respectively.

Table 1: Positive coefficients for the eight studies, showing the results for the Total panel, and for the three mind-sets extracted for each study. Strong performing elements for each study are shown in shaded cells.

tab 1(1)

tab 1(2)

tab 1(3)

tab 1(4)

tab 1(5)

Each respondent was a member of an online panel, aggregated by Luc.id Inc. The respondents were invite to participate by an email sent only to panel members. The panels comprised more than several hundred thousand individuals for each panel company whose members were aggregated by Luc.id, making recruiting easy. Those respondents who agreed to participate read an introductory statement, completed a short self-profiling questionnaire, and evaluated a unique set of 24 vignettes, created according to an underlying experimental design (Gofman & Moskowitz, 2010). The respondents rated the vignette on an anchored 5-pooint scale, shown below.

The screen below describes a local pizzeria. Please indicate how likely you would be to patronize this pizzeria on a scale of 1-5. Although some screens may look alike, each one is different. Don’t dwell on them, just choose a number based on your gut reaction. 1=Not at all likely … 5=Extremely likely.

For each dentist described on this screen, please rate how likely you would be to choose this dentist. 1=Not at all likely … 5=Extremely likely.

You will be shown a series of screens. Each one describes a local dry cleaner. For each dry cleaner described on a screen, please rate how likely you would be to patronize this dry cleaner.

1=Not at all likely … 5=Extremely likely.

Based on the policy positions of the school board candidate below, how likely would you be to vote for this person? 1=Unlikely … 5=Extremely likely.

The analysis converted ratings 5 and 4 to 100, ratings 1-3 to 0, added a vanishingly small random number to each transformed number, used OLS (ordinary least-squares regression), and then clustered the respondents into two and then three mind-sets using k-means clustering. The OLS regression related the presence/absence of the 16 elements to the transformed rating scale, doing so at the level of each respondent. Each respondent ended up with an additive constant and 16 coefficients. The additive constant shows the basic level of interest in the topic (e.g., voting for a person for the school board) in the absence of elements, value that ends up becoming a baseline value since all vignettes comprised 2-4 elements (viz. answers) as dictated by the underlying experimental design.

The respondents were then divided first into two non-overlapping but exhaustive groups, and then into three non-overlapping but exhaustive groups based upon K-Means Clustering. The 16 coefficients were used as the basis for clustering, with the additive constant ignored for by the clustering algorithm.

Table 1 below divides into eight sections, one section for each of four topics, done twice. The two ways are done by the researcher alone, SELF using the AI Coach, the second way, AI, done by the researcher using the AI-powered Idea Coach. Table 1 shows the results for Total Panel and for three mind-sets, for each pair of studies One can get a sense of the richness of the ideas generated by the researcher (SELF) and generated by the researcher aided by AI in the form of Idea Coach.

A cursory look at Table 1 suggests similar performances by elements chosen by a person, first without AI (SELF), and later, at a separate time, with the help of AI (AI). There are no glaring patterns which emerge to tell us that AI-augmented efforts are dramatically stronger or weaker, when selected for the same topic, and evaluated by individuals are presented with a test protocol which prevents guessing what the underlying patterns might be. Only in one of the four studies do we see clear superiority, with elements for school board chosen by a person element performing far better than elements chosen by a person selecting from offerings of AI. This means AI does not offer up any better ideas than the ideas emerging from the individual himself.

Creating a Metric for Comparison – IDT (Index of Divergent Thinking)

A different metric is called for, to compare the performance of the study. This metric has been used for Mind Genomics studies. Table 2 presents the computation for the IDT, index of divergent thinking. In simple terms, the IDT looks at the weighted sum of positive coefficients generated by the combination of the three major groups: total panel, both mind-sets in the two-mindset solution, all three mind-sets in the three mind-set solution. Each of these three components contributes an equal proportion to the final IDT. The approach makes sense because it is very difficult to generate a high coefficient for the total panel because the different people in the total panel cancel each other out. Thus, the total panel gets a weight of 33%. When it comes to two mind-sets, they also share a weight of 33%, so the two mind-sets compete for the 33%. Finally, when I come to three mind-sets, they also share a weight of 33%, so the three mind-sets compare for their 33%. Table 2 shows the computation.

Table 2: Computation of the IDT, the ‘Index of Divergent Thought’. The IDT provides a metric for the strength of the ideas using subjective judgments of the vignettes.

tab 2

When the IDT is computed for the eight studies, the results give a sense of the subjective ‘strength’ of the elements, when ‘strength’ is operationally defined as strong performance on the rating attribute (viz., a preponderance of assigned ratings of 5 and 4 to the vignettes by a defined subgroup of respondents). Table 3 presents a comparison among the eight studies, the sum of positive coefficients for each of the key groups (total, two mind-sets, three mind-sets, respectively), then the IDT for the study.

Table 3: Key statistics from the eight studies

tab 3

The important number in Table 3 is the IDT for virtually the same number of respondents across four pairs of matched studies, one study with four questions and four sets of four elements chosen completely by the researcher without any help from AI, and then afterwards the same selection, this time using only the questions and answers provided by the selected OpenAI language model and based only on a simple statement about the topic.

At this stage, we can say that the results are inconclusive. AI generates a much higher IDT value for school board (113 vs. 94, AI vs. Self), similar value for dentist (86 vs. 83), lower for dry cleaner (54 vs. 69) and much lower for pizza shop (48 vs. 74).

These initial results suggest that AI may perform better than Self generates messages for topics which are not ordinary, not daily (viz., dentist, and school board), but will probably perform more poorly for the more common topics (viz., dry cleaner, pizza shop). The respondents were matched in each study in terms of market and age, and the study was not identified as to origin of the elements. It may be that the differences could emerge from discrepancies in the base sizes of the two groups of emergent mind-sets (MS1 of 2 and MS2 of 2 vs. MS1 of 3, MS2 of 3, and MS3 of 3). If we just look at the Total Panel, using the Total of the positive coefficients, we find that only dentist data shows a stronger performance of AI generated elements versus self-generated elements.

Are AI Generated Elements More or Less ‘Engaging’ than Self-generated Elements?

Up to now the data strongly suggest that the current AI generated elements do not perform quite as well as the self-generated elements, although they do not perform poorly, at least when the judgment is cognitive. What happens, however when the metric comparing the two is non-cognitive, and often used by consumer researcher as well as experimenters in psychology and other disciplines’ course, we refer here to response time, a time-honored method in psychology and more recently in consumer research (Bassili & Fletcher, 1991).

The Mind Genomics program, BimiLeap, measures the time between the presentation of the test stimulus, the vignette, and the response to the stimulus, viz., the rating assigned by the respondent. The respondent need not do anything but read and respond. The time between the presentation of the vignette and the respondent, response time, become the dependent variable in a simple regression equation:

RT=k₁A1 + k₂A2… k₁₆D4

The response time model does not have an additive constant, simply because the additive constant does not have any real meaning. The dependent variable, response time, is used in place of the 5-poont scale, either at the level of the group, or for other studies, at the level of the individual respondent.

Table 4 shows the response time estimate for each element for all eight studies. The table shows the longer response times in shade. This paper does not evaluate the response time, but two opposite arguments can be made about the response time. The first argument is that the longer response times ‘engage’ the respondent to pay attention. The second argument is that the longer response times due to the fact that the message may take longer to read because the message is confusing, poorly written, or simply has mor words.

Table 4: Estimated response time for each element, estimated by Mind-Genomics

tab 4(1)

tab 4(2)

tab 4(3)

Discussions and Conclusions

The rapid emergence of ‘cognitively rich’ AI cannot be ignored. Newspaper articles discussing trends of AI point to the ability of widely available AI tools to create prose in a way which mimics that prose written by people who are capable writers, producing what could be called felicitous prose. Indeed, the topic of the growing potential of students to write college essays using AI is forcing a reevaluation of what it means for a student to learn to write, or indeed to get a liberal arts education. When the language generated by AI is sufficiently close to the language ‘ordinary people’ use, a new paradigm in called for in education.

The contribution of this paper is to introduce the human judge into the evaluation of snippets of information, viz., the elements produced either by people or by artificial intelligence. The Mind Genomics study does not focus on the coherence of the composition, viz., the ‘fitting together’ of the elements into a coordinated paragraph. Rather, the Mind Genomics effort in this paper is to understand the degree to which respondents feel about the individual texts, and to determine whether the elements generated by AI produces the same evaluation score of feeling as does the text of the same topic produced by a person.

If one were to summarize the findings of this paper, one would have to conclude that in terms of human judgment, the elements generated by AI may approach the quality of the elements generated by one’s mind alone, but only in one study out of four (school board) do we see AI performing better, presumably because people do not know about school boards in the way they know about pizza shops, dry cleaners, and dentists. Furthermore, the response time for elements are higher for elements created by the person, rather than by AI. This might be because the text elements created by the highly regarded AI used for the study (Zuccarelli 2020) were sensible, but bland and simply not as engaging yet as those written by a person.

References

Bassili JN, Fletcher JF (1991) Response-time measurement in survey research a method for CATI and a new look at nonattitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly 55: 331-346. [crossref]
Dedehayir O, Steinert M (2016) The hype cycle model: A review and future directions. Technological Forecasting and Social Change 108: 28-41. [crossref]
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