DOI: 10.31038/ESCC.2019115

Abstract

To understand how an area changed over time, change detection analysis using multi-decadal satellite remote sensing data can be quite useful. Out study here uses 30m Landsat data acquired at 30 years apart from 1987 to 2016 collected during the same time of the year (December) to understand the landscape dynamics in the Chilika Lake and neighbouring areas. ISODATA unsupervised classification technique is applied in ArcGIS 10.4.1 for our analysis. The Landsat images of our study area were categorized into bare ground, grass, shrubs, forests and surface water cover types. Our analysis showed that during the last thirty years, bare ground, grass and surface water cover decreased by 139 sqkm, 115 sqkm and 139 sqkm respectively while shrub and forest cover types increased by 180 sqkm and 217 sqkm respectively. The results from our study provides a baseline understanding of the changes happening in this key coastal ecosystem during the last three decades and thus provides information towards developing understanding of long-term coastal ecosystem change in the study area.

Keywords

Decadal Change, Change Detection, Ecosystem Change, Coastal Ecosystems, Landsat

Introduction

Land use and land-cover (LULC) change is in the mainstream of studying Global Change impacts. Land use and land cover are two separate terminologies often used interchangeably [1]. The changes in the physical characteristics of the earth’s surface e.g. deforestation, afforestation, distribution of water bodies, soil and types of vegetation as well as anthropogenic changes such as proliferation of manmade structures are captured in the term land use. The land use and land cover changes of a region is characteristic of the human use of the land and can also be representative of the economic activities. The patterns of these changes are normally a combination of natural and socio-economic drivers over time. Therefore, developing an understanding of the land use and land-cover changes of a region is important to develop management schemes to meet increasing stresses on the natural resources of a region.

Over the years, Land-change science established itself as the foundational ground for studying global environment change and overall sustainability of an ecosystem [2]. This field helps to better understand the human and environment dynamics leading to changes land uses and land covers. This takes care of the change happening in terms of their type, magnitude and location as well. This requires the integration of social, natural, and geographical information sciences. LULC is considered as one of the major concerns in global environmental change and hence overall sustainability of an ecosystem. The LULC driven by rapid urbanization and increasing economic activities put a lot of pressure on natural resources. This is especially true for a rapidly developing country such as India. The environmental degradation associated with LULC change has shown to impact various ecosystem good and services. Various studies have demonstrated that conversion of various land cover types to agriculture and urban landscapes have negative impacts on nutrient cycling, erosion control and climate regulation and water availability and soil fertility [3–7]. The direct consequences of these changes degrade various ecosystem goods and services provided to the human beings through various ecosystem functions. Thus it is important to understand the consequences of the LULC change and hence the overall impact it can have on a whole ecosystem using satellite based measurements over decades.

Remote sensing and GIS has taken a significant role in developing the LULC change science [8–10]. While remote sensing has made possible to study the changes of large areas with precision and over decade’s time-scale, GIS provided a platform for data analysis and updating of mapping products. With emergence of high resolution and long-term satellite programs such as Landsat combined with advanced GIS software, the LULC science has been able to provide routine services for monitoring and modelling of land use / cover patterns. The Landsat series of satellite data archive since 70s has provided one of the strongest resources for LULC science. The freely made available Landsat archive represents a huge information source for studying the changes and developing monitoring capabilities in our manmade and physical environments [11].

Coastal ecosystems are key ecosystems considering their importance in providing goods and services. In addition to the aesthetic and recreational value provided by the coastal ecosystems, economic benefits provided by them in supporting human livelihood via food and materials, nutrient cycling, waste processing and other essential goods and services are quite important. Millennium Ecosystem report of 2005 identifies coastal ecosystems as one of the most productive yet highly vulnerable ecosystems of the world. Coastal areas are vulnerable to climate change impacts due to factors such as: sea level rise, changes in storm surge and precipitation, increased coastal water temperature and ocean acidification. Additionally, factors such as increasing human habitats and technological advances also put additional pressures on coastal ecosystems and thus contribute to the exploitation of coastal resources. In recent times, there are evidences of dramatic declines in various types of coastal ecosystems such as coral reef, mangroves, estuaries, marshes, dunes, deltas, seagrass beds and kelp forests. In this study, an attempt has been made to develop a baseline understanding of changes happening in the Chilika and its neighbouring areas using long-term satellite data records.

Study Area

Our Study area is Chilika Lagoon and its neighbouring areas. Chilika Lagoon is the largest brackish water wetland of India and a Ramsar site. The highly productive eco-system, and its rich fishery resources provides livelihood for more than 0.2 million people who live in and around the lagoon. The lagoon was encountering serious ecological as well as anthropogenic problems leading to change in its ecological characters for which it was included in the Montreux record in 1993 by Ramsar Bureau. This serious threat to the lagoon eco-system had also adversely affected the biodiversity and livelihood of local communities. To restore this unique ecosystem the Government of Orissa created Chilika Development Authority. Rising to the occasion Chilika Development Authority initiated the restoration of the lagoon with ecosystem approach and active community participation. Our interest in the particular area is mainly due its dynamic ecological nature as a coastal area which also provides essential goods and services for a sizeable population and thus providing services for regional economy.

Methods

Two cloud-free Landsat scenes at 30m spatial resolution were selected in December, 1987 (Landsat-TM) and December, 2016 (Landsat-8) for the land use / cover analysis. The data was downloaded from the USGS Earthexplorer site (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov). The datasets were pre-processed in open source software QGIS using Semi-Automatic Classification Plugin for QGIS (Ref). First, the raw DN data for individual bands were converted to radiance values and TOA reflectance. Then the TOA reflectance was converted to surface reflectance using the DOS1 correction. An area of interest (AOI) was created for the Chilika Lake and the adjoining areas and both the scenes were subset to the AOI. Following this, NDVI values were calculated using NIR and Red bands for respective sensors for both the dates. The Landsat data provided by USGS are already georegistered and orthorectified and hence these steps were not performed. As we calculated NDVI i.e. a standard spectral index, inter-sensor calibration was also not needed.

For our classification, we wanted to have a simple classification scheme for a few classes to have an understanding of how the landscape changed over three decades. Iso Cluster Unsupervised Classification analysis of the Spatial Analyst Extension in ESRI ArcGIS 10.4.1 software was used to classify the two NDVI images into five classes each. The number of classes that we wanted to have for our study was determined based on our estimation of broad land-use classes for the area after reviewing the NRSC LULC map. The Iso Cluster Unsupervised Classification analysis combines the functionalities of the Iso Cluster and Maximum Likelihood Classification tools and outputs to a classified raster. The algorithm automatically finds the clusters in an image and outputs a classified image and an optional signature file. We identified our broad classes as Bare ground, Grass, Shrub, Forrest and Water.

To perform change detection analysis for land use / cover change in the study area, a post classification detection analysis was employed. First a pixel-based comparison was used to identify change information for each of the classes and thus interpret changes using “-from, -to” information from 1987 to 2016. Then each of the raster images for each of the classes were converted to vector files and total areas for each of the classes was calculated for each of the years i.e. 1987 and 2016. This information was used to calculate gain or loss of the total area of each of the classes over three decades time period. These data were compiled and presented in table forms.

Results

The results from our analysis are shown below in Figs 2 – 8. Figure-1 Shows the study area and Table-1 summarize the results from the change detection analysis. The following paragraphs provide a brief account of the results obtained.

Table 1. Summary of Landcover change during 1987–2016

Our initial visual assessment of the study area using natural colour RGB images of Landsat images in December showed visible changes which is shown in Figure 1. Particularly, the northern sector of the lake showed some distinct visible changes in vegetation as marked with dotted circles in the figure. This was also visible from the LULC analysis as shown in Figure 2. Figures 3 – 7 are created by overlaying spatial distribution of the particular land cover type for 1987 and 2016 for all the (a) figures and overlaying the 2016 on top of 1987 for all the (b) figures. The purpose of these figures is to show the dynamics of each of the landcover types and how they lost and/or gained in spatial extension from 1987 to 2016. Figure 3 shows the increase in bare ground class from 1987 to 2016 (Fig 3a) and decrease in bare ground spatial class from 1987 to 2016 (Fig 3b). This reveals that bare ground coverage decreased by 7.3% of the total from 1987 to 2016 which is equal to an area of 139 Sq. Km.

Figure 1. The figure shows natural colour RGB images of Landsat in December of 1987, 1999, 2006 and 2013 for a subset of the study area. The image depicts some visible changes in vegetation change. The type of vegetation change was identified in consultation with the Chilika Development Authority and also in a recent field visit to the study area.

Figure 2. The figure shows the five classes in December, 1987 and December, 2016. The legend inside each figure marks the classes with respective colours.

Figure 3. Dynamics of bare ground change between 1987 and 2016. The lightly shaded areas in Fig 3a shows the bare ground extent gained in 2016 compared to 1987 while the dark shaded areas in Fig 3b shows the bare ground extent lost in 2016 compared to 1987. Overall, the bare ground coverage decreased by 7.3% of the total from 1987 to 2016 with an area of 139 Sq. Km.

Figure 4. Dynamics of grass change between 1987 and 2016. The dark shaded areas in Fig 4a shows the grass extent gained in 2016 compared to 1987 while the light shaded areas in Fig 4b shows the grass extent lost in 2016 compared to 1987. Overall, the grass coverage decreased by 8.8% of the total from 1987 to 2016 with an area of 115 Sq. Km.

Figure 5. Dynamics of shrub change between 1987 and 2016. The lightly shaded areas in Fig 5a shows the shrub extent gained in 2016 compared to 1987 while the dark shaded areas in Fig 5b shows the shrub extent lost in 2016 compared to 1987. Overall, the shrub coverage was increased by 20.7% of the total from 1987 to 2016 with an area of 180 Sq. Km.

Figure 6. Dynamics of forest change between 1987 and 2016. The dark shaded areas in Fig 6a shows the forest extent gained in 2016 compared to 1987 while the light shaded areas in Fig 3b shows the forest extent lost in 2016 compared to 1987. Overall, the forest coverage increased by 20.2% of the total from 1987 to 2016 with an area of 217 Sq. Km.

Figure 7. Dynamics of Surface Water change between 1987 and 2016. The red shaded areas in Fig 7a shows the surface water extent lost in 2016 compared to 1987 while the blue shaded areas in Fig 7b shows the surface water extent lost in 2016 compared to 1987. Overall, the surface water extent coverage decreased by 13.9% of the total from 1987 to 2016 with an area of 139 Sq. Km.

Similarly, figure 4 shows the change of cover type grass from 1987 to 2016. The figure depicts that this cover type decreased by 8.8% of the total from 1987 to 2016 with an area of 115 Sq. Km. For land cover type shrub shown in figure 5, the cover type has seen an overall increase by 20.7% of the total from 1987 to 2016 which equals to an area of 180 Sq. Km. Figure 6 depicts the change dynamics of the land cover type forest i.e. dense vegetation from 1987 to 2016. The figure reveals that this land cover type increased by 20.2% of the total from 1987 to 2016 with an area of 217 Sq. Km. The surface water land cover type change increased decreased by 13.9% of the total from 1987 to 2016 which equals an area of 139 Sq. Km.

Table 1 summarizes the analysis for the land use / cover type carried out on the Landsat data for December 1987 and December 2016. The total area in 1987 and 2016 and how much they changed are shown in sq.Km. Each of the land cover types in percent of the total area in 1987 and 2016 and how much they changed from 1987 to 2016 as a percentage are also shown in positive and negative changes.

Discussions and Conclusion

This study conducted near Chilika and its adjoining areas provided us the first glimpse of land cover change over three decades. The basic land cover types we chose helps us to have an baseline understanding of the changes happening in the area which is important while trying to develop long-term studies of change detection in finer spatial and temporal resolution. This study also shows us how we can exploit the long-term Landsat archive for ecosystem studies at a reasonably fine spatial resolution which is otherwise not available from any of the other satellites data archive. The results from our study reveal that bare ground, grass and water land cover types decreased from 1987 to 2016 while shrub and forest types increased from 1987 to 2016. We did our analysis on December Landsat data mainly due to better coverage because of less cloudy conditions. The timing of the season also has an impact on the land cover types we chose. For example, the bare  ground included areas that are normally left barren after rice cultivation in December months in addition to open soils. Therefore, decreasing of bare ground from 1987 to 2016 probably means that less areas being cultivated in 2016 compared to 1987. The decrease of grass land cover types from 1987 to 2016 might mean that more naturally vegetated areas are being exploited for built-up areas. The shrub land cover type included shrubby vegetation which also included some of the weed infestation in Chilika area such as Phragmites Karka. Chilika Development Authority recognizes this as a major problem in Chilika area and also states the proliferation of this vegetation around Chilika over the last few decades. So, increase of shrub from 1987 to 2016 by about 180 sq.km probably captures the proliferation of this particular weed infestation problem that is happening in Chilika which is an interesting result. The forest land cover type included any dense vegetation including actual forests. The increase of forest type from 1987 to 2016 is mostly because of replantation that is happening in the area which was confirmed by the Chilika Development Authority. The decrease of surface water in the area by 139 sq km also complements the finding of increase of shrubs in the area which is actually proliferation of weeds in the chilika area. The decrease in surface water probably also depicts the degradation of coastal wetlands in the areas over three decades duration. Degradation of wetlands is a recognised problem in India and elsewhere and hence our finding provides us important baseline information for developing further studies. This finding needs further investigation with finer spatial and temporal resolution data and ground validation.

Acknowledgements

We would like to acknowledge support from the NRSC-NICES program to conduct this study as part of the Ecosystem Change and Climate Change research theme. We would also like to thank Chilika Development Authority, Govt. of Odisha for helpful feedback during our studies and also to interpret our results.

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DOI: 10.31038/ESCC.2019114

Abstract

A number of approaches have been employed across the world to address adaptation to climate change impacts. The role of ecosystems in adaptation to climate change impacts has been recognized at the international level more so upon the realization that conservation, sustainable management and the restoration of ecosystems can help people adapt to the impacts of climate change. This concept of using ecosystems for climate change adaptation otherwise known as Ecosystem based Adaptation (EbA) utilizes the premise that healthy, well managed ecosystems have climate change mitigation potential. The approach is gaining increasing attention as it is accessible to the rural poor in developing countries due to its cost-effectiveness and due to the fact that it uses infrastructure that is already established by nature. Research has it that the Mount Elgon ecosystem in the south-rift part of Kenya has EbA characteristics which can offer longer term solutions to adaptation to climate change impacts while providing a range of other benefits in terms of ecosystem goods and services. This paper seeks to profile Mt. Elgon ecosystem’s natural infrastructure in improving resilience of the forest adjacent community to the impacts of climate change. This was achieved by carrying out, a descriptive survey that involved 405 household and 51 civil servant and civil society respondent drawn from Saboti, Kiminini, Endebess, and Kwanza sub- counties, Transnzoia County in Kenya. Results show that residents of the study area grow maize (90.6%) being their staple food as compared with other crops such as beans (3.7%), vegetables (2.7%) and millet (1.5%).The household incomes centre around crop farming (47.4%) followed by formal employment (21.5%),family business (12.9%), casual employment in the agricultural sector (10.9%), while other sources accounted for 0.5%. This specialty economy exposes residents to the effects of climate.   A major conclusion in this study is that beneficiary decentralized governance systems must seize opportunities presented by the Mt Elgon ecosystem to develop initiatives that improve the resilience of ecosystems and people to climate change impacts.

Keywords

Ecosystem based adaptation, opportunities, challenges, Mt. Elgon

1. Introduction

Ecosystem based adaptation is a nature-based approach, has the potential to increase adaptive capacity and social and ecological resilience to climate change in both developed and developing countries [1]. It provides a cost effective, economically beneficial, as well as longer term solutions, with a range of co-benefits in terms of the goods and services provided by ecosystems

Mount Elgon Forest Ecosystem is one of Kenya’s five major water towers and the second highest mountain in the country. It doubles up as an important biodiversity hotspot of global significance, supporting several endemic plant and animal species (CIFOR, 2017). This gazetted montane forest reserve was recognized as a Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 2003 due to its significance as a water tower and biodiversity reservoir [2]. The key values of Mt Elgon are presented in the form of natural heritage, biodiversity, water catchments, agricultural base, and tourism that support a poor human population in its landscape. This ecosystem is characterized by peasant farmers whose population density average at 600 people per km² near forest. This community depends on the forest for most of their subsistence needs. The bimodal pattern of rainfall with annual rainfall of 1,400 – 1,800 mm comes in March to May and September to November. The dry seasons run from June to August and from December to March. The reliable climatic conditions, coupled with other ecological services of this ecosystem supports the adjoining human population of about 2 million people, a majority of whose livelihoods and economic activities depend solely on the goods and services that they derive from this forest ecosystem.

As a key afro-montane ecosystem, the effectiveness of management policies and institutional arrangement has direct impacts on the livelihoods of the surrounding community and other support sectors across large watersheds in Kenya and Uganda (CIFOR, 2017).  Improved understanding of the ecosystem health of this ecosystem, biodiversity status and its contribution to provision of ecosystem goods and services is a key step in developing a cost effective and economically viable policy strategy to increase community resilience to climate change impacts. In view of the foregoing, this paper seeks to profile Mt. Elgon ecosystem’s natural infrastructure in improving resilience of the forest adjacent community to the impacts of climate change.

1.1 Study area

The study area covers four sub-counties whose residents directly or indirectly interact and depend on the Mt. Elgon forest for their livelihoods (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Study area.

(Source: Moi University Geography Department GIS Lab, 2013.)

This landscape which consist of a forest reserve and a national park extend and border with the local communities who live adjacent to the forest and depend on its forest for their livelihood. The forest provides most of the goods and services, which form the basis of their subsistence. The rivers and many rivulets which emanate from this forest have for a long time influenced greatly the livelihoods of the immediate and downstream communities.

The rich agro-ecosystem that is supported by this afro-montane forest has recently experienced the impacts of climate change. This has manifested itself through increasing mean annual temperatures and shifting of precipitation means of the crucial agricultural calendar (figures 2 & 3)

Figure 2. Mean annual temperature changes in the Mt. Elgon ecosystem.

Figure 3. Rainfall variability in MAM and OND over the years (2009 -2018).

1.2 Methodology

A descriptive survey was used to collect data from fro 405 households who are   residents of Saboti, Kiminini, Endebess, and Kwanza sub- counties (table 1).

Table 1. Sample size of households.

Another set of 51 responds drawn from the civil servants and civil society organizations was selected using purposive sampling. The selection was based on their knowledge on Mt.  Elgon ecosystem and climate change adaptation matters. The civil servant respondents were drawn from the County Government of Transnzoia, the national government ministries, departments and agencies. Civil society respondents were drawn from the private sector, local NGOs and CBOs. Information obtained from this category of respondents was correlated with existing secondary information.

2. Results and Discussion

2.1 Opportunities for Ecosystem based management in Mt. Elgon ecosystem

2.1.1. Ecosystem goods and services in enhancing resilience to climate change

There is a wide range of ecosystem goods and services that are obtained from the Mt. Elgon forest ecosystem (table 2). The community regards these as important in both directly and indirectly supporting their livelihoods.

Table 2. Goods and services obtained from the Mt. Elgon forest ecosystem.

Explanation

Goods such as food, fiber, fuel wood, freshwater and medicinal plants are obtained from this forest ecosystem besides offering diverse ecosystem services. Generally, the benefits obtained from Mt. Elgon ecosystem can be grouped into four main categories. These are provisioning, regulating, supporting, cultural, and recreational services. They are all relevant in contributing to the reduction of vulnerability of the community to the effects of climate change.

A healthy, fully functioning Mt. Elgon ecosystem can enhance the provision of these much needed ecosystem goods and services. Further, a healthy ecosystem can be more resilient to stressors and thus better able to support adaptation to climate change impacts. Further, a healthy ecosystem implies a greater element of flexibility in adaptation response options. Strengthening and protecting this ecosystem is a sustainable investment that ensures an array of environmental, social and financial benefits especially under adverse climatic situations.

2.1.2 Eba in improving food security in Mt. Elgon Ecosystem

Table 3 shows the main crops grown by most households in the study area. They include maize (90.6%), beans (3.7%), vegetables (2.7%), millet (1.5%) and sugarcane (1.5%). The physiographic and edaphic factors are suitable for growing other crops such as millet, sunflower and sorghum (GoK, 2013) [2] but this opportunity has not been exploited.

Table 3. Main crops grown by respondents.

Source: (Author, 2015)

Maize farming is widely adopted in the study area with the size of land owned not being an obstacle to people growing maize (α = 0.05, p = 0.207). It is the most preferred irrespective of the size of land owned by a household (table 4).

Table 4. Relationship between sizes of land owned by respondent and the main crop grown.

Source: (Author, 2018)

Explanation

Owing to the food preferences, maize is a staple food in both the study area and in Kenya as a nation. The adequacy of this preferred crop determines how food secure the Mt. Elgon community is at any one given moment. In the event of a short supply occasioned by the effects of climate change, most households will have limited choices of other food stuffs and will be considered to be food insecure. This causes maize to be widely grown as compared to other crops. Its production is relies mainly on rain-fed agriculture, which is in turn influenced by the prevailing climatic conditions in the Mt. Elgon forest ecosystem. This climatic fluctuations that are characteristic of the area exposes Maize production to climate related uncertainties and may in turn affect the production pattern of this staple food. The major climatic uncertainties include precipitation variability, seasonal temperature change, extreme weather events such as; drought, floods, emergence of new crop pests and diseases, which may in turn increase the community’s vulnerability to climate change impacts.

Herrero [4] observes that overreliance on one staple food crop by a society may expose them to the impacts of climate change. This is especially so when the production systems rely on the prevailing climatic patterns of the area. The uncertainties associated with natural climatic patterns may strongly affect the stability of food supplies.  This results to multiple effects that include the reduction of the society’s ability to access food at affordable prices besides leading to critical effects on food security. Seizing ecological opportunities that come with the Mt. Elgon’s ecosystem can diversify crop farming and thus broaden the variety of agricultural activities in the area.  These favorable conditions can positively be used to increase resilience to impacts of climate change.

2.1.3 EbA in increasing income diversity in the Mt. Elgon ecosystem

Crop farming (47.4%) is the main source of family income followed by formal employment (21.5%). Other income sources include family business (12.9%), casual employment in the agricultural sector (10.9%), while other sources accounted for 0.5% (table 5).

Table 5. Common source of household income.

Source: (Author, 2018)

Explanation

Agriculture, being the main economic activity has a strong ripple effect on the vibrancy of other sectors in the same region. This sector emerged as the single largest source of income supporting a majority of homesteads. It was established that even those in formal employment and are with a relatively stable income are actually working in agriculture-allied institutions. For instance, the Kenya Seed Company, Agricultural Development Corporation (ADC), Educational facilities, and flower farms in the study area have a workforce that receives a relatively regular income to supports their livelihoods. All these employees are categorized as working in the agriculture sector and its value chain facilities. This implies that the agricultural share of total labor force and associated income is big and largely influences the vulnerability to climate change narrative in the study area. This is largely due to the fact that agricultural activities practiced by the community in the area heavily rely on the natural climatic patterns.

Indeed the findings point out to lack of diversification in income sources in the study area. This narrow range of income streams is an important socio-economic exposure to the effects of climate change. Diversified income sources can help in cushioning households against the negative effects of climate change by providing alternatives should another fail. Herrero et al [4] observes that over-reliance on limited economic livelihood options is a strong predisposing factor to vulnerability to the effects of climate.   Broadening of income-generating opportunities by vulnerable groups especially with the imminent threats of climate change and its impacts is urgent.  This then calls for the need to avoid the overreliance on climate dependent agriculture and its income sources. Adger [5] too observes that dependency on income from agriculture is an important aspect of vulnerability and is caused by reliance on a narrow range of limited resources. Such dependency may often lead to social and economic stresses. He further points out that there are links between poverty and lack of diversification of livelihood activities by the farmers and thus leading to enhanced poverty.

The Mt. Elgon ecosystem which has diverse ecological niches can wistfully be utilized to broaden the economic base of the residents. This call on enhanced investment in research directed at birthing economic ventures that site match the different ecological niches presented by this ecosystem. Eco-tourism and commoditization guided by sustainable exploitation of some renewable natural resources such as water may provide additional avenues of income generation. Restoration of degraded ecosystems is an important aspect of EbA because it provides a mechanism for carbon sequestration and hence climate change mitigation, sources of employment and enhancement of resources to support livelihoods [6,7].

Payment for ecosystem services also known as payments for environmental services or benefits are other possible income streams in the Mt. Elgon ecosystem. It implies that incentives can be offered to farmers, landowners and natural resource conservancies in exchange for managing their land to provide some sort of ecological service [8]. The programs are voluntary and mutually beneficial contracts between the riparian consumers of environmental services and the suppliers of these services.

Challenges to Ecosystem based adaptation

3.1. Biodiversity loss

The Mt. Elgon ecosystem has lately suffered from a shrinking biodiversity resource base, a situation that has been attributed to over-abstraction of some species. Diminished biodiversity is a pointer of poor ecosystem health and consequently, reduced ability to buffer the community against the effects of climate changes. A publication by IUCN [2] points out that there has been a marked reduction in forest cover due to clearing of land for agricultural production (figure 4).

Figure 4. Land use and land cover changes in Mt. Elgon ecosystem (1973–2013)

Source: ACCCESS/IUCN, 2014

The use of land and natural resources in and around the Mt Elgon ecosystem has resulted to significant alteration of ecosystem structure, function and processes, including connectivity within and between ecosystems, a case that has also been observed by Western [9]. Ongugo (op cit) [10] observes that water streams emanating from the Mt.  Elgon have in the recent past reduced significantly in terms of volumes and annual discharge due to anthropogenic factors. The soils too have lost their fertility due to poor soil management practices. Deterioration of these resources has in turn impacted negatively on the community livelihood resources, whose existence is closely linked to the ecosystem health. Modification of the Mt. Elgon ecosystem may reduce its health, productivity and resilience, and must be managed to ensure sustainable supply of ecosystem goods and services.

Over-abstraction of the ecosystem goods in the Mt. Elgon has been linked to people viewing the resources as free goods that are open to exploitation by all. IPCC (op cit) observes that, because many of the ecosystem goods and services have always been freely available, with no markets and no prices, their true long-term value is not included in society’s economic estimates. It calls for “hercynian” decision to value these goods and services in monetary terms. Further, promoting better governance, and strengthening the rules that help to protect this ecosystem is encouraged in order to enhance the ecosystem health, which culminates in enhanced EbA services.

3.2. Uncoordinated management of the ecosystem

Cumulatively, 77% of household are of the opinion that there is uncoordinated approach towards managing the ecosystem resources. This has led to the degradation of the individual natural resources and consequently affecting their livelihood sources (table 6).

Table 6. Respondent views on coordination the management of ecosystem resources.

Source: (Author, 2018)

Responses indicate that 32% of households have not witnessed nor do they have knowledge these collaborative meetings while 26.7% have seen these meetings being held yearly (table 7).

Table 7. Household view on inter-sectoral ecosystem management meetings.

 Source: (Author, 2015)

A major pre-requisite for effective utilization of ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change is the presence of inter-agency collaborative management of the natural environment. Mt. Elgon ecosystem is not a homogenous landscape. It is made up of at least four discrete eco-climatic zones that support different plant and animal communities [11]. The situation calls for a management arrangement that reflect the ecological diversity and inter-connectedness of ecosystem processes. Contrary to this expectation, ecosystem restoration activities geared towards addressing ecosystem restoration, resource management and conservation in the Mt. Elgon ecosystem often take a sectoral approach. This is often associated with to an old age common practice in government in which departments are used to working sectorally while enjoying the benefits of selective mandate. In this kind of setup, the departments lobby and direct much effort to oppose any move towards holism and collaborative management. Under this arrangement, ecosystem restoration activities and natural resource management are often characterized by sector fragmentation with a number of government departments managing specific resources which focuses on specific uses.

There are consequences of fragmentation that may affect the ecosystem health of Mt. Elgon and by extension EbA. Mhlanga et al [12] observes that sectoral fragmentation of conservation efforts in a homogenous ecosystem can lead to some negative outcomes such as; lack of continuity caused by almost constant programmatic and structural change, loss of public confidence in both the processes of governance and government; and the rapid shift of natural resource management policies to community-based programs without adequate funding and other support. Mt. Elgon ecosystem risks the same consequences should this challenge of sectoral fragmentation fail to be addressed.

3.3. Duplication of conservation efforts

Fragmented management of strategic activities by different actors in one ecosystem is contributing significantly to ecosystem degradation. This poses a threat of interfering with institutional frameworks.  There are possibilities of weak enforcement of polices and legislation at all levels of governance, right from the ecosystem to the national level. Morrison et al [13] notes that governments regularly restructure departments in the natural resource management and environmental arena, sometimes for the purpose of improved policy integration, but most frequently to meet ministerial and bureaucratic aspirations. He further observes that fragmentation of policies and their implementation seriously diminishes the overall effectiveness of natural resource management programs.

A major recommendation given in his study is the adoption of an integrated ecosystem management system which requires active but sustained involvement of all resource users and stakeholders on how the available financial and human resources are allocated and utilized. Conflicts mitigation is crucial too in order to encourage long-term supply of ecosystem goods and services for improved livelihoods.

Diversity of statutory instruments in the Mt. Elgon can make the management of an ecosystem’s resources very effective if properly coordinated. Such coordination can create synergies between and among various government departments which is necessary for sustainable production and utilization of ecosystem goods and services hence cushioning against the effects of climate change.

3.4. Natural resource governance challenges

Findings show that 73.2% of government and civil society respondents report that there exist inter-sectoral policy inconsistencies (table 8) and incoherencies as regards the management of Mt. Elgon ecosystem natural resources whereas a paltry 26.8% have not noticed any policy inconsistencies.

Table 8. Presence of inter-agency policy inconsistencies.

Mt. Elgon Ecosystem offers a range of benefits and opportunities for local and national economic development, improved livelihoods and provision of environmental goods and services. This call for a good environmental policy that ensure that there is harmonized and integrated approach towards the management of natural resources to ensure that there is sustainable provision of goods and services to beneficiaries.  In this manner there will be reduced vulnerability to effects of climate change by ecosystem goods and service dependent communities. Management of renewable natural resources in Mt. Elgon as separate entities becomes difficult because of the complexity of their interlinked social and ecological components.

The observed policy inconsistencies in managing natural resources found in the same ecosystem is a major factor that could determine the health of this ecosystem and its sustainable supply of livelihood goods and services. A good ecosystem plan and management policy should aim at maintaining an ecosystem in a healthy, productive and resilient condition so that it can meet human needs into the future [14]. The plan should embrace an all-inclusive approach to management that considers the entire ecosystem, including the various stakeholders.

Co-management, where management responsibility is shared between government and resource-users, may improve the suitability and perceived legitimacy of management rules when there is policy coherence. However, despite the potential for such arrangements to improve the resilience of natural resource systems, how co-management works in the face of the glaring policy inconsistencies remains poorly understood [14].

4. Conclusion and Recommendations

Conclusion

The study area is characterized by a specialty economy dominated by maize farming. The fact that it is basically supported by rain-fed agriculture, this specialty agricultural practice exposes the community to climate change impacts. Since the prevailing climate still favors agriculture, residents should be encouraged to adopt mixed farming which caters for both crop and livestock farming. This, coupled with complete value chains, will lead to diversified income sources.

For effective utilization of EbA, the decentralized governance system must make deliberate effort to enhance the ecosystem health of Mt Elgon through sustainable management, conservation and restoration of natural and agro-ecosystems, taking into account anticipated climate change impact trends to reduce the vulnerability and improve the resilience of ecosystems and people to climate change impacts.

References

1. IUCN (2016) Ecosystem-based adaptation: a win–win formula for sustainability in a warming world. Briefing 2016.
2. Muhweezi AB, Sikoyo GM, Chemonges M (2007) Introducing a Transboundary Ecosystem Management Approach in the Mount Elgon Region. Mountain Research and Development 27: 215–219.
3. Government of Kenya (2013). National Climate Change Action Plan 2013–2017. Executive Summary, Nairobi Kenya.
4. Herrero M, Ringler C, van de Steeg J, Thornton P, Zhu T, et al (2009) Climate variability and climate change and their impacts on Kenya’s agricultural sector. Nairobi, Kenya. ILRI.
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7. Worldbank (2009) Convenient Solutions to an Inconvenient Truth: Ecosystem-based Approaches to Climate Change. The World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA.
8. Kagombe BN (2013) Determinants of auctioneers participation in auctioneering industry: A case of Nyanza / Western chapter of Kenya Auctioneers.
9. Western D (2001) Human-modified ecosystems and future evolution. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 98: 5458–5465.
10. Ongugo PO, Langat D, Oeba VO, Kimondo JM, Owuor B, et al (2014). A review of Kenya’s national policies relevant to climate change adaptation and mitigation: Insights from Mount Elgon. Working Paper 155, Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR.
11. KEFRI (2018) Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI).
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14. Plummer R, Fitzgibbon J (2004) Co-management of Natural Resources: A Proposed Framework. Environmental Management 33: 876–885.

DOI: 10.31038/ESCC.2019113

Commentary

A good researcher usually specializes and enjoys a specific area of study. For example, the researcher is passionate to spend and devotes most of his/her time in studies like biomonitoring, ecology, ecotoxicology, genetics and plant crop improvements. The aim of this paper is to review Ecotoxicological Genetic (EG) study by using marine mussel Perna viridis under the Mussel Watch program and to discuss the potential EG o be applied to crop plants as Crop Watch.

From worldwide scenario, the pace of knowledge increment on EG studies highly indicates that this area is not a new knowledge since it can be easily found in the literature (see Nevo et al., 1986 [1]). However, in Malaysia, the first (perhaps) paper on such topic was published by Yap et al. [2], which will be further discussed in the following paragraph.

Anthropogenic activities have created significant impacts on chemical levels in the coastal environment [3], including inorganic and organic (persistent and emerging) chemicals. The evaluation of EG study in Malaysia is based on the marine mussel P. viridis as a model in this review paper.

Firstly, the most detailed ecotoxicological and biomonitoring study on P. viridis was that reported by Yap et al. [4] which reported on four heavy metals. As found in the literature, heavy metal pollution in Malaysia is increasingly reported in the literature since early 2000 see Yap et al., [5,6]. Application of the biomonitoring data of heavy metals in the marine mussels from Malaysia has been assessed for human health risks [7].

Secondly, the first genetic structures of P. viridis were investigated by Yap et al. [8] by using electrophoretic allozyme study. The genetics differentiation/composition of P. viridis is heavily dependent on free-swimming larvae along the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia especially in Malacca (Al-Barwani et al., 2007) [9]besides the physical barrier (the Johore Causeway [10] and heavy metal contamination in the east part of the Causeway [11,12]. These causative agents should merits more studies in future.

Yap and Tan [13] has made a comprehensive review on the EG studies, based on P. viridis, in Malaysia. This emerging research perspective, perhaps, has started with the use of allozyme polymorphism of P. viridis in relation to heavy metal stress [14]. Preliminary studies on the EG studies on biomonitors in Malaysia have been focused on green-lipped mussels [2,15,16], horseshoe crabs [17] and guppy fish [18].

Perhaps, the earliest EG study was that on the heavy metal stress on allozyme polymorphisms in Malaysia by Yap et al. [19]. They found a positive relationship between allozyme polymorphisms and heavy metal levels in P. viridis sampled from contaminated and uncontaminated coastal waters. Following that, Yap and Tan [15] reported changes in the enzymes GOT, EST and ME in direct connection to Zn stress. This was explained by a lower rate of filtration in the gills and a decreased value of condition index. The above laboratory experiment was conducted by using P. viridis as a test organism. The significance finding of Yap and Tan [15] supported the previous study by Yap et al. [20] that allozymes of P. viridis could be influenced by heavy metal stress based field collected samples. Yap et al. [16] reported significant (P< 0.01) relationships between heavy metal levels and RAPD primers in the byssus and soft tissues of P. viridis. This implied that correlation analysis between a specific primer of RAPD marker and a particular metal could be employed for the identification of metal pollution in the mussels.

Following the above EG studies by using P. viridis as a model, heavy allozyme polymorphisms and heavy metal levels were investigated in female guppy populations collected from two contrasting sites, namely polluted and unpolluted ecosystems [17]. They reported that the levels of Fe and Cu were significantly (P< 0.05) higher in guppy population sampled from polluted drainage than those from unpolluted ecosystem. This finding was largely supported by the significantly (P< 0.05) higher levels of Fe and Cu in the surface sediments, showing contamination by Fe and Cu in the polluted drainage. Based on allozyme study, they found that the banding pattern of the unpolluted wild guppy population with monomorphic alleles which were similar and comparable to unpolluted domesticated guppy population bought from a pet shop. This confirmed that LDH in the guppy can be used as a good biomarker of Fe and Cu contamination. Almost similar ecotoxicological genetic approach was applied to horseshoe crab populations in Malaysia by Yap et al. [18]. They sampled populations of horseshoe crab (Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda) from contaminated and uncontaminated coastal areas of Peninsular Malaysia.

Future ecotoxicological genetic studies should focus on crop plants since they are the major food sources to the ever increasing world populations nowadays. Food crop such as oil palm is an important focus. This is due to the fact that oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) has arisen as a key economic crop nourishing the world population nowadays [21]. For example, ecotoxicological monitoring study has been conducted in the oil palm by Yap et al. [22] while genetic studies on the oil palm by Wahid et al. [23] for the high-quality planting material through genetic improvements. However, the above two studies were conducted separately and interpretations were made based on ecotoxicology and genetics, respectively. Future studies should merge the two areas as EG study to make the our understanding in a more holistic ecologically and genetically. Other ecotoxicological monitoring study in crops such as papaya and bananas have been published by Yap et al. [24] and Yap et al. [25], respectively. However, the genetic studies on the above crops are lacking in the literature.

Therefore, Crop Watch is a new research approach incorporating ecotoxicology and genetics. This EG studies hold a great potential research in the future, not only in academia but also commercial industries.

In conclusion, the above literature review indicated Crop Watch by means of EG studies is a potential (although not a new) research area. Considering the importance and combination of knowledge on ecology, ecotoxicology and genetics would help to monitor the growth and yield besides human health risk assessment of the crop better. This Crop Watch approach is expected to continue in future, especially in Malaysia and other Asian countries.

References

1. Nevo E, Noy R, Lavie B, Beiles A, Muchtar S (1986) Genetic diversity dan resistance to marine pollution. Biol J Linn Soc 29: 139–144.
2. Yap CK, Ismail A, Tan SG and Rahim Ismail A (2004) Assessment of different soft tissues of the green-lipped mussel Perna viridis (Linnaeus) as biomonitoring agents of Pb: Field and laboratory studies. Wat AirSoil Pollut 153: 253–268.
3. Amin B, Ismail A, Arshad A, Yap CK and Kamarudin MS (2009) Anthropogenic impacts on heavy metal concentrations in the coastal sediments of Dumai, Indonesia. Environ Monitor Assess 148: 291–305.
4. Yap CK, Ismail A and Tan SG (2003) Background concentrations of Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn in the green-lipped mussel Perna viridis (Linnaeus) from Peninsular Malaysia. Mar Pollut Bull 46: 1043–1048.
5. Yap CK, Ismail A, Din Mohd A, Said ZB Tan S. and Siraj SS (2005) Heavy metal (Cd, Cu, Pb dan Zn) concentrations in the green-lipped mussel Perna viridis (L.) from artificial substrates at aquacultured farm of Sebatu. Malays Fisheries J 4: 81–87.
6. Yap CK, Yeow KL, Edward FB and Tan SG (2009) Revealing copper contamination at the penang industrial area by using Malaysian Mussel Watch Approach. Asian J Microbiol Biotechnol Environ Sci 11: 683–689.
7. Yap CK, Cheng WH, Karami A and Ismail A (2016) Health risk assessments of heavy metal exposure via consumption of marine mussels collected from anthropogenic sites. Sci Tot Environ 553: 285–296.
8. Yap CK, Tan SG, Ismail A and Omar H (2002) Genetic variation of green-lipped mussel Perna viridis (Linnaeus) from the west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Zool Stud 41: 376–387.
9. Al-Barwani SM, Arshad A, Nurul Amin SM, Japar SB, Siraj SS, Yap CK (2007) Population dynamics of the green mussel Perna viridis from the high spat-fall coastal water of Malacca, Peninsular Malaysia. Fish Res 84: 147–152.
10. Yap CK, Cheng WH, Ong CC and Tan SG (2013) Heavy metal contamination and physical barrier are main causal agents for the genetic differentiation of Perna viridis populations in peninsular Malaysia. Sains Malays 42: 1557–1564.
11. Yap CK, Mohd Nasir S, Edward FB and Tan SG (2012a) Anthropogenic inputs of heavy metals in the east part of the Johore Straits as revealed by their concentrations in the different soft tissues of Perna viridis (L.). Pertanika J Trop Agric Sci 35: 827–834.
12. Yap CK, Shahbazi A and Zakaria MP (2012b) Concentrations of heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Zn and Ni) and PAHs in Perna viridis collected from seaport and non-seaport waters in the Straits of Johore. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 89: 1205–1210.
13. Yap CK and Tan SG (2011) Ecotoxicological genetic studies on the green-lipped mussel Perna viridis in Malaysia. In: L.E. McGevin, ed., Mussels: Anatomy, habitat and environmental impact. Nova Science Publishers USA 221–244.
14. Tan SG, Yap CK (2006) Biochemical and molecular indicators in aquatic ecosystems: Current status and further applications in Malaysia. Aquat Ecosyst Health Manage 9: 227–236.
15. Yap CK, Tan SG (2007) Changes of allozymes (GOT, EST and ME) of Perna viridis subjected to zinc stress: A laboratory study. J Appl Sci 7: 3111–3114.
16. Yap CK, Chua BH, Teh CH, Tan SG, Ismail A (2007) Primers of RAPD markers and heavy metal concentrations in Perna viridis (L.), collected from metal-contaminated and uncontaminated coastal waters: Are they correlated with each other? Russian J. Genetics 43: 544–550.
17. Yap CK, Chong CM, Tan SG (2011a) Lactate dehydrogenase in the guppy fish (Poecilia reticulata) as a biomarker of heavy-metal pollution in freshwater ecosystems. J. Sust. Manage. 6(2): 240–246.
18. Yap CK, Chong CM, Tan SG (2011b) Allozyme polymorphism in the horseshoe crabs Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda collected from polluted intertidal area in Peninsular. Malaysia. Environ Monitor Assess 174: 389–400.
19. Yap CK, Ismail A, Tan SG, Rahim Ismail A (2004b) The impact of anthropogenic activities on heavy metal (Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) pollution: Comparison of the metal levels in green-lipped mussel Perna viridis (Linnaeus) and in the sediment from a high activity site at Kg. Pasir Puteh and a relatively low activity site at Pasir Panjang. Pertanika J Trop Agric Sci 27: 73–78.
20. Yap CK, Tan SG, Ismail A, Omar H (2004c) Allozyme polymorphisms and heavy metal levels in the green-lipped mussel Perna viridis (Linnaeus) collected from contaminated and uncontaminated sites in Malaysia. Environ Int 30: 39–46.
21. Kushairi A, Soh KL, Azaman I, Elina H, Meilina-Ong A, et al.(2018) Oil palm economic performance in Malaysia and R & D progress in 2017. J Oil Palm Res 30: 163–195.
22. Yap CK, Nur Aishah H, Cheng WH, Zakaria MP, Al-Shami SA (2019a) Bioaccumulation of Cu and Pb in the different parts of oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) in comparison to their habitat topsoils. In: Soil Pollution: Sources, Management Strategies and Health Effects, Editor: Chee Kong Yap, Nova Science Publishers, New York, USA.
23. Wahid MB, Nor S, Abdullah A, Henson IE (2005) Oil Palm – achievements and Potential. Plant Prod Sci 8: 1–13.
24. Yap CK, Nur Sakinah MJ, Cheng WH, Omar H, Nulit R, et al (2019b) Distribution of Ni and its human health risk assessment in the Carica papaya from Peninsular Malaysia. In: Soil Pollution: Sources, Management Strategies and Health Effects, Editor: Chee Kong Yap, Nova Science Publishers, New York, USA.
25. Yap CK, Ahmad Zulfadhli T, Cheng WH, Sharifinia M, Ye F, et al (2019c) Health risks of heavy metals via consumption of Musa paradisiaca and the ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in the habitat topsoils. In: Soil Pollution: Sources, Management Strategies and Health Effects, Editor: Chee Kong Yap, Nova Science Publishers, New York, USA.

DOI: 10.31038/ESCC.2019112

Abstract

The environmental impact assessment in Malaysia can generally be categorized as preliminary and detailed. Public participation in preliminary EIA is confined to the review of environmental impact statements by technical committees. Public participation in detailed EIA is more extensive involving inputs of ad-hoc panel members during scoping, public display and comments of EIS as well as review of the EIS by the panel members. Consultation with affected communities is conducted by consultants during EIS preparation though the process is not spelled in the legislation. At only the initial level of involvement in the spectrum of public participation, there is still much room for improvement in engaging the public in the Malaysia EIA. Public participation in the Malaysian EIA could be extended beyond the EIS review stage by engaging the public in scoping and assessment and even during development of policies and plans. Public participation in Malaysia requires further facilitation to improve accessibility to the necessary information for effective provision of comments.

Keywords

Public participation, consultation, EIA, EIS, Environment, Malaysia

Introduction

Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a process to systematically identify, predict, evaluate and mitigate impacts of development proposals to facilitate decision-making by relevant authorities on the worthiness of the proposals. The impacts evaluated consist mainly of the biological, physical and social aspects [1]. The EIA has its origin in the United States (US) with the enactment of the National Environment Policy Act (NEPA) in 1970. The act was developed in response to mounting public awareness for environmental protection stemming from increasing pollution across the US due to industrialization and urbanization [2]. The Santa Barbara oil spill in 1969 and construction of the Interstate Highway System resulting in extensive losses of ecosystems both pushed for the subsequent passing of NEPA [3]. Since then, other countries began to model their environmental laws after NEPA and to date, there are more than 100 countries in the list [4].

Only 4 years later, the Environmental Quality Act 1974 was enacted in Malaysia requiring development proposals with significant environmental impacts to have EIA conducted under Section 34A [5]. However, it was until 1987 that the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order was made and the order came into effect on the 1^st April 1988. While prescribed activities had not been well defined under Section 34A of the Environmental Quality Act 1974, thus limiting the ability of the Act to dictate EIA for certain proposals, it became clear in 1988 that the prescribed activities listed in the Order would be subject to EIA [6]. The order was replaced by the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 2015 [7]. The major difference of the two Orders, other than a revision of the prescribed activities, is that the 2015 version specifies the prescribed activities whose environmental impact statements (EIS) require public display and comments. Both the Orders do not illustrate the EIA process and the process is not easily accessible on the official portal of the Malaysian Department of Environment [6, 7].

EIA Process in Malaysia and Public Participation

There are two types of EIA, namely the preliminary and detailed EIAs. The types of EIA have not been stated in the Orders but have been mentioned in the guide for investors published by DOE [6-8]. Prescribed activities listed in the First Schedule of the Environmental Quality (Prescribed Activities) (Environmental Impact Assessment) Order 2015 do require to have the EIS public displayed and commented, and are generally subject to the preliminary EIA. However, those listed in the Second Schedule of the Order prompting public display and comments of the EIS are put through the detailed process [7, 8]. Prescribed activities in the Second Schedule are deemed to have larger impacts than those in the First Schedule due to comparatively larger scale of the activities. Both the preliminary and detailed EIAs undergo the typical EIA stages of screening, scoping, EIS preparation and review, decision-making and follow-up but the stages differ in levels of details and activities [9]. A comparison of both the processes is shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Comparison of Preliminary and Detailed EIAs in Malaysia.

From Table 1, it appears that only detailed EIA involves public participation. To understand the extent of public participation in Malaysia, a further probe of the definition of public participation and the definition of public is necessary. The IAIA defines public participation as ‘involvement of individuals and groups that are positively or negatively affected by, or that are interested in, a proposed project, program, plan or policy that is subject to decision-making process” [10]. The undertakings of public participation implies the democratic approach of a country [11]. For instance, a deliberative approach provides limited means for the undertaking of public participation in comparison to the collaborative approach which upholds inclusiveness, openness and consideration of multiple perspectives for effective planning and decision-making [12]. Lawrence perceived EIA as a form of social learning in the quest for sustainable development during which all stakeholders have the opportunity to enhance their knowledge [13].

Participation is fundamentally different from consultation in the sense that participation involves active engagement in decision-making while consultation is confined to the request of information and inputs from intended parties [14].Putting participation on a scale, consultation can be visualized as a lower level of participation providing minimum opportunity for the public to be involved in decision-making [15]. The International Association for Public Participation (IAP2) divides public participation into 5 levels starting with informing at the bottom which revolves around provision of unbiased information to the public so that they can understand the issues at hand. Consultation is at the next level up. Involvement sits higher that consultation and focuses on engagement with the public to ensure public needs and concerns are continuously gathered and considered. Next on the spectrum is collaboration which forges a partnership with the public in identification of alternatives and solutions. The highest level is empowerment which grants the decision-making power to the public [15]. The EPA’s spectrum of public involvement aligns with that of IAP2 in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Spectrum of Public Involvement [16].

The Level of Public Participation in the Malaysian EIA

Referring again to Table 1, elements of public participation can now be identified in both the preliminary and detailed EIA processes. In preliminary EIA, it is confined to the review stage involving stakeholders in the technical committee who comprise largely of government officers. In detailed EIA, public participation is garnered via public display and comments of the EIS at designated locations as well as the review of the TOR and the EIS by ad-hoc panel members consisting of government officers, academics of universities and representatives of NGOs.

There is minimal involvement of other members of the public particularly those affected by the proposals in preliminary EIA as reflected by the process in Table 1. In practice, consultants appointed to prepare the EIS may conduct social survey to gather opinions of the communities around the project area but such practice widely varies as it is not required in preliminary EIA, hence a lack of model to be adopted [8, 17]. For detailed EIA, there is a higher extent of public participation starting from the review and comments of the TOR by the ad-hoc panel members to the review of the EIS by the members. Public participation has also been extended to the public display of EIS at designated locations for comments and announcement of the display via DOE’s website and newspapers. This is akin to the level of involvement of the public participation spectrum proposed by IAP2 and the level of recommendation in the EPA’s spectrum. Public display of EIS invites comments not only from those affected by the proposal but other members of the public whom are concerned about the proposal [17].

At this point, it becomes clear that public participation in Malaysia is often confined to particular stages of EIA for instance, the EIS preparation and review stages of preliminary EIA if social survey is conducted during impact assessment. Based on Wood’s model of EIA [9], public participation should permeate every stage of EIA starting from consideration of alternatives to monitoring action impacts. Nonetheless, different countries may incorporate public participation to varying extents at different stages of the EIA. Taking the Western Australia for example, public comments are invited during screening on the need for assessment and the level of assessment of a proposal. This extends to the scoping stage with publication of the Environmental Scoping Document, equivalent to the TOR in Malaysia on the website of the environmental authority for public comments. The EIS is also published for comments and the final decision on EIS approval can be appealed [18]. In New Zealand, while there is no public scoping, public participation is facilitated via public hearing and review of EIS. For public hearing to be held, it must either be requested by members of the public who have provided comment on a proposal or come under the decision of the ministry or environmental agency. Nonetheless, public participation in New Zealand is not confined to EIA [19]. The Resource Management Act 1991promotes public participation via open standing at the stage of national policies and plans establishment and application by members of the public to Environmental Court for enforcement order in pursuit of sustainable management. At regional level, consultation with Tangata Whenua i.e. the local Maori people is conducted for development of regional and district plans [20].

In Malaysia, based on the author’s experience in environmental consultation, public meetings are conducted for detailed EIA involving the communities at the vicinity of the proposed development sites and such meetings are usually conducted once or twice to gather their inputs and perceptions of the proposals. Certain concerns are addressed by the proponents during the meetings but follow-up of the inputs, comments and perceptions via a feedback mechanism is lacking. Such approach is at best a form of consultation. The affected communities have very little influence over the alternatives of the proposal unlike in the Western Australia where public comments are invited from the screening stage of EIA and in New Zealand, where public participation comes even earlier at the strategic assessment stage [20, 21]. The public display and comments of EIS at designated locations can be perceived as involvement or recommendation level engaging the general public and not just the affected communities in providing concerns. The practice, however, is not well-facilitated. The availability of EIS at specific locations limits the accessibility of the public to the information necessary to provide their comments.  The public can also purchase the EIS from the appointed EIA consultant at a cost which is often quite prohibitive [22]. This forms a stark difference to Western Australia where information related to the EIA ranging from scoping documents, EIS to assessment of the authority and final approval are posted on the website of the environmental authority [21]. In New Zealand, the EIS are also readily available online for public comments and only commercially confidential information is withheld [23]. A search on the World Wide Web reveals very few complete EIS of proposals in Malaysia and in most instances, only the executive summaries are made available.

The EIA process may differ in states in Malaysia having their own environmental legislation and it appears that public participation could elude the state’s EIA legislation [24]. Other than engagement of government officers and NGOs in the review of EIS, public participation could be missing from the EIA process and the access of EIS could be made tedious, thus further hampering public engagement in EIA.

Conclusion

Public participation has been incorporated into the EIA processes in Malaysia but it is still far from maturity. The most common form of public participation is consultation involving representatives of government departments and NGOs in the review of EIS. For detailed EIA, the extent of public participation is increased with public display of EIS for comments and the review of TOR by ad-hoc panel members as well as their inputs during scoping meeting. However, general members of the public have not been actively engaged in the EIA processes. It can be argued that the knowledge level of the Malaysian public members in providing constructive comments is still relatively low [17]. However, in a democratic system, it is the right of the public to have access to the necessary information to provide their thoughts and feedback, and such right should be respected in decision-making. Besides, public participation in EIA should be viewed as a form of social learning through which higher level of public knowledge in this respect can be achieved. It is therefore recommended that public participation in Malaysia should be extended beyond the EIS review stage and should be facilitated by making necessary information available on an official online portal.

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