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Mind-Sets of “Verbal Judo” – How Young Males Respond to Described Interactions between Perpetrators and Police Officers

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DOI: 10.31038/ALE.2024111

Abstract

The study focuses on how young males, ages 16-30, in the Virginia area respond to different scenarios of a police officer interacting with a prospective lawbreaker. The scenarios were created by systematic combinations of messages (elements), developed from human experience and artificial intelligence. The deconstruction of the ratings into the part-worth contribution of each of 16 elements showed the degree to which each element would be “listened to” by the prospective lawbreaker, as well as the degree to which the same element would lessen the anger. Three mind-sets emerged. The first mind-set is the police officer who creates empathy, which de-escalates the situation. The second mind-set is the take-charge officer, who clearly senses a developing problem, talks authoritatively. The third mind-set pays attention to community-oriented and empathic policing. These mind-sets represent the way ordinary people, young males, think about the police and what the police do when they read about these different potential crimes and interactions between perpetrators and police. The approach allows us to identify the way young people think about the information that they read. The results show that not everybody is the same and that there may be different strategies about the role of police officers depending upon the nature of that to which a person pays attention.

Keywords

Lawbreaker, Mind-sets, Police officer, Verbal judo

Introduction

The origin of this study can be traced to ongoing work by the authors in the world of working with police officers to figure out how to deal with the public, how to deal with active lawbreakers, prospective lawbreakers, situations which may turn violent, and finally, just as important, how to recruit police officers in a world where certain kinds of social activities have been set up to hamper police officers. The study that was done here concerns what the police officer should say to an individual who looks like that individual will engage in violence. The study is based upon a series of discussions with various police departments, as well as the recognition that there are different mind-sets of criminals. A detailed look through the literature of crime suggests that criminals, those who do violence for example, are not doing it all for the same motive [1-5]. This statement may seem like a truism, and it is to some extent. However, the ramifications of this truism are especially important. We are not dealing here with academic issues which will result in the same outcomes. Rather, we are discussing real-world situations in which violence may take place, in which people may get hurt or even killed. We are looking at a problem which is systemic all over the world, namely the interaction, and perhaps even confrontation, between a police officer and a lawbreaker. Crimes are committed for different reasons. What’s not necessarily obvious is the nature of the motivation of the criminal, and perhaps just as well, the type of communication to which the criminal or at least the prospective lawbreaker might be receptive. Negotiators recognize these differences in the types of language and the types of wording that might be effective, but all too often, such knowledge resides in the mind of the person who has had experience, who has been trained “on the job” through personal interactions.

We would like to bring this effort into the public eye by doing research on what people think will be effective communications [6]. The objective here is not necessarily to have an encyclopedia of those discussions. We leave that to the professionals. Rather, our objective is to use new research techniques, such as Mind Genomics, to discover the types of mind-sets of prospective lawbreakers and their situations in which things happen. And, for both of them to figure out what type of language might be effective as perceived by a person who’s asked to judge the situation.

The science of criminology has long recognized the existence of mind-sets or types of individuals. It could be no other way. People are different in the reasons underlying their commission of crimes or misdemeanors. We all operate within different life circumstances. Can we make a tool that the negotiator in a crime or the police officer can use for specific circumstances, named at the time of use? The objective would be to use that tool as a way to learn, and to instruct. We do not expect the work to be presented here to be anything other than a start of using Mind Genomics as emergent science to understand the mind of what we might call negotiation [7-10]

The Foundation and Approach of Mind Genomics

The foundation of Mind Genomics is the belief that it is possible to study the reactions to the world of the everyday in a scientific manner. When we look at the specific details of the everyday, we may often find that people react to these details in different ways, but in a limited number of different ways. These different ways are called mind-sets. The objective of Mind Genomics is to understand the world by understanding how people differ from each other in their response to features of and messages about the daily world [11]. Rather than assuming that there are a limited grand number of mind-sets — let’s say three or ten or sixty even — we assume that the mind-set emerges from the pattern of reactions or the pattern of potential reactions to a granular, everyday situation. That is, people can be in one mind-set when they think about how they’re going to order and eat breakfast but be in totally different mind-sets when they realize how they’re going to commute to work. The goal of Mind Genomics, therefore, becomes one to understand these mind-sets at the granular level, doing so in a way which is efficient, inexpensive, educational, reliable, powerful [12-14]. One ultimate goal is to create a “database of everyday life.” This paper presents one application, the messaging or “verbal judo” between a police officer and a prospective lawbreaker.

Setting Up the Mind Genomics Study Through a Templated System

The templated approach developed for Mind Genomics ensures that any user can do a study, whether the user knows the elements to be tested or whether the user wants to be “coached” by AI in the form. of an LLM (large language model) to create these elements. Figure 1, Panel A shows what confronts the user at the start of the study. The user is requested to tell four or select four questions which “tell a story.” Panel A is already filled in but one could imagine Panel A with no questions whatsoever simply with four blanks, one blank per question.

The prospect of course is quite daunting as has been the experience of the authors over the past decades. It is for that reason that we embedded artificial intelligence using ChatGPT 3.5 [15]. ChatGPT 3.5 was programmed to receive a small squib shown in the box on the right (Figure 1, Panel B). The squib describes the issue. From that squib ChatGPT 3.5 creates 15 questions for each iteration [16,17]. The user can iterate again and again, each time creating 15 questions, until the user selects a total of four questions across the various iterations. The user can select the questions, edit them, provide other questions, doing so for many iterations. The Mind Genomics process will record each iteration, whether the elements were selected or not. The result is an education simply through creating questions in each iteration. Thus, the four selected questions could come from a variety of iterations and reflect the results of editing the suggested questions [16,17].

What ends up of course is that the user can drop the questions into the study as shown in Panel A, can edit it, put it into different words, or even use the user’s own ideas (Figure 1, Panel A). Table 1 shows the types of questions which emerge when the user uses Idea Coach ChatGPT for creating the questions.

Table 1: Output of AI for the squib. Topic: A policeman is responding to a situation. What should I ask?

TAB 1

The same approach requiring the user to generate four answers to each question finally selected once again generates a sense of discomfort. The level of discomfort seems to be less, perhaps because it is easier to answer questions than to pose them. Once again AI proves valuable here, reducing the panelist. The user only needs to select Idea Coach and AI is prompted to return with 15 answers to each question. The process can go on several times for each question, resulting in a book of questions and answers to those questions. Table 2 shows the final set of four questions and four answers to each question.

FIG 1

Figure 1: Panel A shows the user interface screen requesting four questions, with the questions filled in. Panel B shows the user interface box to write in the squib for the Idea Coach, using ChatGPT 3.5.

Table 2: The final set of four questions, and the four answers (elements) for each question

TAB 2

Orienting the Respondents and Providing a Rating Scale

The next step in the setup of the Mind Genomics study involves the creation of the orientation for the respondent and an easy-to-use rating scale. Traditionally, the rating scale has been unidimensional, from low to high, from 1 to 5. More recent efforts have used two-sided rating scales, allowing the respondent to provide two pieces of information in the same scale. It is a two-sided rating scale that we use in this study. The first side involves ratings of listening. The second one involves ratings of reducing anger. Table 3 presents the text of the rating scale. Respondents typically have little problem assigning ratings using this type of scale, even though it would seem that they are making two types of judgments. Figure 2, Panel A shows the screenshot for the respondent orientation provided by the researcher. Figure 2, Panel B shows the set up for the rating scale, allowing the user to select the question itself (top), the number of scale points, and the optional anchoring phrase for each scale point.

Table 3: The rating scale

TAB 3

FIG 2

Figure 2: Panel A shows the user interface to create the respondent orientation. Panel B shows the user interface to create the rating question.

Table 4 shows the three self-profiling questions selected by the user, in addition to two additional standard questions (age, gender). These self-profiling questions allow the user to obtain otherwise impossible-to-obtain information about the respondent. Figure 3 shows the actual pull-down menu as presented to the respondent at the start of the evaluation session.

Table 4: The three self-profiling questions selected by the user

TAB 4

FIG 3

Figure 3: The pull-down menu presenting the self-profiling questions

Once the consumer respondent logs in and completes the self-profiling classification (Figure 3), the respondent is presented with an orientation and immediately evaluates 24 vignettes, one vignette after another (see Figure 4). The vignettes are created by experimental design, a systematized layout. Each respondent evaluates a unique set of the 24 vignettes, the uniqueness guaranteed by a permutation scheme which maintains the mathematical properties of the combinations (statistical independence, equal frequency of appearance, etc.).

FIG 4

Figure 4: Example of a vignette as presented to the respondent, who reads and rates the vignette. The vignette automatically advances to the next vignette after the respondent assigns a rating.

A vignette has two, three, or four elements, at most one element from each question or one answer from each question. According to the experimental design, the combinations of the vignettes are incomplete. That is, the vignettes are not created by the obsessive requirement that each vignette have exactly one element (viz., answer) from each question. That requirement would, in fact, end up being counterproductive in a statistical sense because the 16 elements would not be statistically independent of each other, and only relative value of coefficients would emerge, not the more desirable absolute values.

The strategy of having each respondent evaluate a unique set of combinations was developed by Gofman and Moskowitz in the early 2000’s [18]. The objective was to ensure that Mind Genomics would explore many combinations and thus might be well used as a tool for exploration rather than a tool to confirm what was known. In traditional conjoint measurement, the typical user ends up testing known combinations, creating these limited numbers of combinations to test the hypothesis. It is important in traditional conjoint measurement to “know” the important elements ahead of time. In a complete about face, Mind Genomics was designed to explore the response to messages, elements, welcoming the absence of any ingoing knowledge about “what is important.” In Mind Genomics, the user may have absolutely no idea of what the important elements are, and therefore it makes far more sense to have each person test a unique set of combinations different from the combinations of everybody else. The consequence of that is that the Mind Genomics system is much like an MRI of the mind, looking at different areas, identifying things, and then putting everything together at the end of the experience with one grand computer analysis which shows exactly what every element contributes.

Transformation to Binary Scales and Creation of Equations Using OLS (Ordinary Least Squares) Regression

The analysis of Mind Genomics data follows a simple series of steps and like the setup is templated to make the approach easier for people to use. The rating scale has two dimensions. One dimension is listening, the second dimension is lessening anger. We want to capture both of these. The transformations create two new variables, each taking on the values of 0 or 100, as shown. Each rating thus generates these two binary variables. As a precautionary measure to ensure that every respondent generates some level of variation in these two binary variables, we add a vanishingly small random number (<10-5) to each newly created binary variable. By so doing we ensure that the subsequent analysis using OLS (ordinary least squares) regression will not “crash.”

R54 (Listen to Officer)       Ratings 5 and 4 transformed to 100, ratings 1,2, and 3 transformed to 0.

R52 (Lessen Anger)    Ratings 5 and 2 transformed to 100, ratings 1, 3 and 4 transformed to 0.

The effort put into creating the combinations now pays out. It is straightforward to apply OLS regression to the data, whether at the level of a single individual or at the level of a group. The equation shows how one deconstructs the rating, or more correctly the transformed binary variable, into the part-worth contribution of each of the 16 elements. The equation does not have an additive constant, meaning that the equation is forced through the origin. This simple expression contains within it all of the information about the driving strength of each of the 16 elements for Listen to Office or for Lessen Anger.

Binary Dependent Variable = k1A1 + k2A2… k16D4

Table 5 shows the coefficients from the ordinary least squares regression. The coefficients are sorted by the magnitude for R54 (Listen to Police Officer). The convention for this analysis will be that any coefficient of 21 or higher will be shaded to highlight as being an extremely important, highly significant coefficient. The value 21 emerges from statistical tests of significance. The second column shows the coefficient for R52 the binary dependent variable for Lessened Anger. In neither case is any element shown as highly significant with a coefficient of 21, although D3 is close: Policeman says I respect your right to voice your grievances.

Table 5: Coefficients for the Total Panel

TAB 5

The fact that there are no very strong elements for R54 (Listen to Police Officer) or for R52 (Lessen Anger) may emerge because people have different criteria, and therefore their ratings may cancel each other out. We can think of two streams meeting another stream in opposite directions. A stream flows quickly, but if two streams meet together and they’re going in opposite directions, often the result is a pool with a lot of disturbance, but the pool is not going fast in any direction. It just becomes a maelstrom. The same thing may occur with the coefficients from the total panel. We may have different groups of people with different ideas, and the question is whether in fact these people are canceling each other out. We will see that when we come to mind-sets, but first we have to work our way through the differences between people as they have defined themselves in the classification questions.

Self-Profiling

The respondents were required to answer three questions at the start of the study, shown in Table 3. Mind Genomics can generate a wall of numbers because of the different binary dependent variables (R54, R52), the 16 elements, and the several groups self-defined by the respondent. To make understanding and discovering patterns easier, we focus from this point forward on one key dependent variable, R54.

Table 6 shows the coefficients based upon Question 1, attitude towards police. The story in Table 6 is clear. Only one of the three subgroups generate consistently high coefficients, viz., those who say they trust police.

Table 6: Coefficients for elements based on self-profiling Question 1 (Attitude toward police).

TAB 6

Table 7 shows the coefficients for R54, this time based on how the respondent feels about violence in society. Once again, a story emerges, although not one quite as clear as before. Those who feel that violence is never justified end up saying they will listen to direct statements to them by the police. Those who feel that violence is occasionally warranted say that they will listen in a number of situations, but the common link is not clear. Finally, those who feel that violence is simply part of everyday life do not end up saying that they will listen to the police officer.

Table 7: Coefficients for elements based on self-profiling Question 2 (Violence in society).

TAB 7

Table 8 shows the coefficients for R54, this time for self-profiling question #3, “positive interactions with police.” Those respondents who say that they have had several positive interactions with the police are likely to listen, especially when spoken to respectfully.

Table 8: Coefficients for elements based on self-profiling Question 3 (Positive interactions with police).

TAB 8

Mind-Sets

The last analysis creates mind-sets. Mind-sets are defined as clusters of individuals who respond in the same way towards a specific topic. Individuals within a mind-set find certain patterns to be extraordinarily engaging and other patterns to be virtually irrelevant. Mind-sets emerge from statistical analyses of the patterns of coefficients for the individuals. Ideally for a topic such as listening to police officers, the statistical analysis should generate a limited number of clusters of patterns, the mind-sets, with these patterns telling easy to understand “stories.” The former is parsimony, the latter is interpretability.

The creation of mind-sets for these data involved the estimation of 108 individual-level equations, one equation for each respondent. It is just as easy for the computer to create 108 equations as to create one equation, since each respondent’s 24 vignettes were arranged ahead of time to ensure that the 16 elements appeared in a statistically independent fashion. As before, the key dependent variable is R54, Listen to the police officer. The final analysis to generate the mind-sets used k-means clustering [19]. The outcome is two, and then three clusters or mind-sets. The three-mind-set solution was easier to interpret. Table 9 shows the three-mind-set solution, sorted from high to low for each mind-set separately. Elements which generate coefficients of 21 or higher in two mind-sets appear in each mind-set in the proper order, to make interpretation easier. Table 9 shows many more strong performing elements, with these elements telling simpler stories. It is important to keep in mind that these mind-sets emerge without the help of human interpretation except at the very end. All of the analyses come from pure mathematical considerations.

The strong performance of elements in Table 9 should not surprise. The analogy given above for the total panel was of two or more streams, moving swiftly in opposite directions, clashing with each other and creating a pool of turbulent, but non-flowing flowing water. The mind-sets flow in different directions. We see weaker performance for the total panel (see Table 5, column for R54). Only when the different mind-sets emerge do we see how really strong the mind-sets are.

Table 9: The three-mind-set solution emerging from clustering the coefficient on the basis of values for R54 (Listen to the police officer).

TAB 9

Using AI to Understand the Mind-Sets More Deeply

Our final analysis comprises the deeper interpretation of our mind-sets through artificial intelligence. We know the strong performing elements for the key binary dependent variable R54. Table 9 shows these elements in shade. The LLM embedded in BimiLeap.com, the Mind Genomics platform, “summarizes” the patterns behind these strong performing elements. Table 10 presents these summaries exactly the way they emerged from the LLM. It is important to keep in mind that the user does not have to accept the summarization. For example, the mind-set names used in Table 9 are not those recommended by AI. Rather, the summarization shown in Table 10 is meant as an aid to learning and to critical thinking, essentially acting as a “coach” to suggest other aspects meriting the user’s attention.

Table 10: AI-generated “automated summaries” of strong-performing elements for each of the three mind-sets shown in Table 9.

TAB 10(1)

TAB 10(2)

TAB 10(3)

Discussion and Conclusions

The goal of this study was to demonstrate how a combination of artificial intelligence and Mind Genomics thinking can create different features of the interaction between a potential perpetrator of a violent act and the police. With the increasing power of artificial intelligence as manifested in large language models, it becomes straightforward to request these large language models to provide relevant questions and then for each question relevant answers. We demonstrated this through Idea Coach. Whether or not we created the correct questions and selected the correct answers becomes a minor issue when we realize that we can do an iteration in a minute or less. What would take months of thinking, now with the help of large language models, really takes minutes to do in terms of searching for new questions and in turn for new answers to those questions, the elements of our study.

The first half of the study was devoted to finding the test stimuli. The second half is devoted to finding the response of real people, in our case young males living in the Virginia area. The issue was whether these people would respond in a specific way to the various scenarios, to the different elements combined. The data from our 108 respondents suggest three different mind-sets. It’s important to know that this is our first foray. The first mind-set would be strong responses to listening when the place is familiar and when the police officer says to the effect that “I’m going to not do anything to you, just let’s talk.” The second mind-set stresses that the person says they will listen when there are clear actions that suggest a hostile nature. The police officer clearly senses a situation and the problem developing and talks authoritatively. It’s important to note that the police officer who talks authoritatively may also want to talk in a more peaceful manner to find common ground. The third mind-set is that the police officer really knows what’s going to happen and essentially threatens or orders the potential perpetrator not to do anything. As a closing comment, one should keep in mind that these mind-sets are not hard and fast divisions, but interpretable regions on a continuum. That itself is key learning, that sometimes there are strong differences, opposite or independent, orthogonal, and sometimes the mindsets fall along a continuum of power. It’s quite possible that in the case of police behavior in these situations we are dealing with positions on a continuum rather than radically different mind-sets. Only experimentation will tell us.

Acknowledgment

The authors would like to thank Vanessa Marie B. Arcenas for helping to produce this manuscript.

Abbreviations

Abbreviation Definition
AI Artificial Intelligence
ChatGPT Chat Generative Pre-trained Transformer
LLM Large Language Model
OLS regression Ordinary Least Squares regression

Competing Interests

The authors have no conflict of interest to disclose.

References

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  2. Bazemore G, and Senjo S (1997) Police encounters with juveniles revisited: An exploratory study of themes and styles in community policing. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management 20(1): 60-82.
  3. Hulderman MA (2003) Decision-making styles and learning strategies of police officers: Implications for community policing. Oklahoma State University.
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  6. Mendoza C, Mendoza C, Deitel Y, Rappaport S, Moskowitz HR (2023) Empowering young people to become Researchers: What does it take to become a police officer? Psychology Journal Research Open 5: 1-12.
  7. Cooper HHA (2005) Close Encounters of an Unpleasant Kind: Preliminary Thoughts on the Stockholm Syndrome. Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations 5(2): 81-109.
  8. Donohue WA, and Roberto AJ (1993) Relational development as negotiated order in hostage negotiation. Human Communication Research 20(2): 175-198.
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  10. Soskis DA, and Van Zandt CR (1986) Hostage negotiation: Law enforcement’s most effective nonlethal weapon. Behavioral Sciences & the Law 4(4): 423-435.
  11. Moskowitz HR, Gofman A (2007) Selling Blue Elephants: How to Make Great Products that People Want Before They Even Know They Want Them. Pearson Education.
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  14. Radványi D, Gere A and Moskowitz HR (2020) The mind of sustainability: a mind genomics cartography. International Journal of R&D Innovation Strategy (IJRDIS): 2(1): 22-43.
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Fertility Preservation Among Cancer Patients in Saudi Arabia: A Hot Topic

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DOI: 10.31038/CST.2024923

Abstract

The future quality of life of cancer patients with respect to their fertility is impacted by cancer treatment for those who were diagnosed before or during their reproductive years. Fertility cryopreservation technologies give hope to cancer survivors for life following cancer treatments. However, a limited number of patients are taking advantage of the benefits provided by fertility preservation alternatives because of a lack of standardized guidelines, a lack of awareness, and the need for additional education and training.

Keywords

Knowledge, Attitudes, Practices, Fertility preservation, Cancer patients, Saudi Arabia

Introduction

Worldwide, the prevalence of cancer patients is increasing, with a long-term incidence projection showing that there will be a 1.8-fold increase by 2030, making it a life-threatening diagnosis [1]. Fortunately, recent advances in cancer treatment have resulted, for example, in female cancer survival rates increasing to 10% of all survivors under the age of 40 [2,3]. However, it is known that a number of cancer treatments harm the reproductive system, resulting in sterility or infertility. In order to improve the quality of life of cancer survivors of childbearing age, fertility preservation (FP), advice, and treatment are increasingly being offered [4]. The knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) regarding FP, especially in cancer patients, are very advanced worldwide. In Saudi Arabia, FP in cancer patients is a topic that has gained increasing attention and importance. However, it is still a difficult problem, and for a variety of reasons, referral and consulting are not yet widely used.

The KAP among Oncologist

According to our previous studies in 2011, we identified several knowledge gaps among oncologists that could impact their attitude, which in turn was reflected in their poor practice. For example, the possibility of preserving female fertility was unknown to 45% of oncologists [5]. At that time, there was limited awareness about FP options, a lack of standardized guidelines, and a need for further education and training in this area, especially in the absence of legislation.

Twelve years after the above-mentioned study, the advice of senior religious scientists in 2018 allowed the freezing of tissue of the ovarian membrane, the entire ovary, and eggs for later use in reproduction in order to preserve the offspring. In a recent study conducted in 2023, we investigated whether oncologists’ knowledge, attitudes, and referral procedures regarding FP have improved. Their level of understanding has greatly increased, as we have discovered. Doctors were actually found to be significantly more knowledgeable about a wide range of female FP options, the most prevalent of which was egg cryopreservation (77%), than other options. It was still necessary to improve patient counseling and referrals to fertility services, though. Our results demonstrate Saudi Arabia’s deficiency in clinical practice standards for FP in cancer patients. [6].

The KAP among Health Practitioners

Understanding the knowledge, attitudes, and practices of health practitioners toward fertility preservation is crucial in ensuring that individuals receive accurate information and appropriate care regarding their reproductive options.

A recent study conducted in Saudi Arabia aimed to assess the attitude of health practitioners towards fertility preservation and showed that clinical practitioners’ knowledge is still inadequate. They concluded that there is a need to train health practitioners and establish practice guidelines and fertility preservation clinics for cancer patients [7].

The KAP among Medical Student

Medical students are the future doctors, and in order to successfully deal with the topic of FP, medical training should begin. To implement cancer education curricula related to fertility preservation, it is necessary to identify any gaps and other barriers that could be overcome through medical education to improve future clinical practices. Our recent study on the attitude and knowledge among Saudi medical students toward FP showed respectable awareness and attitudes toward FP. However, there are still some gaps; almost half of the respondents mentioned that cancer treatment should be started before FP, suggesting the need to improve education about FP in the medical curriculum [8].

The Knowledge among Cancer Patients

Cancer patients who may face fertility challenges in the future were recently surveyed. The study by Abusanad A. et al. in 2022 showed that 56.30% of the cancer patients surveyed had satisfactory knowledge about the consequences of cancer treatment for infertility and expressed a desire to have children through FP in the future. However, this desire has been hampered by limited oncofertility care and FP procedures. Unfortunately, such patients were occasionally referred to a specific fertility facility, where only 17% saw a fertility specialist and only 37.8% received fertility counseling [4].

Conclusions

To the best of our knowledge, there have not been studies addressing such an important topic in our region for a decade. To meet the patient’s needs and improve the quality of life of cancer survivors, the best way is to increase cancer awareness through cancer education and disseminate information about cancer prevention. This can be done in a number of ways: through educational events and continuing medical education programs for medical students, oncologists, and nurses caring for cancer patients whose fertility is affected by cancer treatment. Such educational programs will expand their knowledge and improve their practice. The public should be aware of the availability of fertility preservation services in government and private centers, as well as the cost, timing, and various procedures.

Acknowledgment

The authors are grateful to the Deanship of Scientific Research, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, for funding through the Vice Deanship of Scientific Research Chairs.

Conflict of Interest

The author has no conflict of interest to declare.

References

  1. Arafa MA, Rabah DM, Farhat K (2020) Rising cancer rates in the Arab World: now is the time for action. East Mediterr Health J. 26(6): 1-5 [crossref].
  2. McLaren JF, Bates GW (2012) Fertility preservation in women of reproductive age with cancer. Am J Obstet Gynecol. Dec; 207(6): 455-62 [crossref].
  3. Dursun P, Doğan NU, Ayhan A (2014) Oncofertility for gynecologic and non-gynecologic cancers: fertility sparing in young women of reproductive age. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol. Dec; 92(3): 258-67 [crossref].
  4. Abusanad A, Mokhtar AMA, Aljehani SAA, Aljuhani KFA, Saleh KAA, Alsubhi BH, et al. (2022) Oncofertility care and influencing factors among cancer patients of reproductive age from Saudi Arabia. Front Reprod Health. Nov 17; 4: 1014868. [crossref]
  5. Arafa MA, Rabah DM (2011) Attitudes and practices of oncologists toward fertility preservation. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 33: 203-7. [crossref]
  6. Arafa MA, Abdulkader SM, Farhat KH, Rabah DM, Awartani DK, Aldriweesh AA, et al. (2023) Are There Any Developments in the Attitudes and Practices of Oncologists Regarding Fertility Preservation in Saudi Arabia After 12 Years? Cureus. Sep 2; 15(9): e44562. [crossref]
  7. Ahmad Sindi R, Salem Bagabas M, Mamdoh Al-Manabre L, Zahi Al-Sofee R, Yousef Rednah R, Meshal Al-Jahdali S (2022) Evaluation of Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice of Health Practitioners towards Fertility Preservation in Cancer Patients in an Environmental Region of Saudi Arabia. J Environ Public Health. Jun 6; 2022: 6404837. [crossref]
  8. Karim Hamda Farhat, Mostafa Ahmed Arafa, Danny Munther Rabah, Deana Khalid Awartani, Shahad Hussein Bajunaid, Seham Majid Abdulkader, et al. (2023) Fertility Preservation among Cancer Patients in Saudi Arabia: Knowledge and Attitudes of Medical Students. Dubai Med J 6 (Suppl. 1): 5-10.

Thermal Properties of Natural and Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Composites

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DOI: 10.31038/NAMS.2024731

Abstract

The thermal stability of natural fiber composites is a relevant aspect to be considered since the processing temperature plays a critical role in the manufacturing process of composites. At higher temperatures, the natural fiber components (cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin) start to degrade and their major properties (mechanical and thermal) change. Different methods are used in the literature to determine the thermal properties of natural fiber composites as well as to help to understand and determine their suitability for a certain applications (e.g., Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and differential mechanical thermal analysis (DMA)). Weight loss percentage, the degradation temperature, glass transition temperature (Tg), and viscoelastic properties (storage modulus, loss modulus, and the damping factor) are the most common thermal properties determined by these methods. This paper provides an overview of the recent advances made regarding the thermal properties of natural and hybrid fiber composites in thermoset and thermoplastic polymeric matrices. First, the main factors that affect the thermal properties of natural and hybrid fiber composites (fiber and matrix type, the presence of fillers, fiber content and orientation, the treatment of the fibers, and manufacturing process) are briefly presented. Further, the methods used to determine the thermal properties of natural and hybrid composites are discussed. It is concluded that thermal analysis can provide useful information for the development of new materials and the optimization of the selection process of these materials for new applications. It is crucial to ensure that the natural fibers used in the composites can withstand the heat required during the fabrication process and retain their characteristics in service.

Keywords

Natural fiber reinforced composite material, Thermal analysis, Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Differential mechanical thermal analysis (DMA)

Introduction

The application of composites has continuously increased across many industries, in particular in the automotive and aerospace industries where lower weight and high resistance are key factors. The most commonly used fibers that attend these requirements are carbon and glass fibers [1-3]. However, nowadays, the industry is seeking new desirable characteristics of composite materials, such as renewability, eco-friendliness, and low cost. Consequently, there has been great interest in research and innovation in natural fiber composites owing to the advantages of these materials compared to their synthetic fiber counterparts (i.e., lower environmental impact and lower cost), supporting their potential across a wide range of applications in several industrial sectors [4-9]. The natural fiber-reinforced composites (NFRCs) are used mainly in non-structural car body parts, such as door panels, package trays, hat racks, instrument panels, internal engine covers, sun visors, boot liners, oil air filters, and even progressing to more structurally demanding parts, such as seat backs and exterior underfloor paneling [10,11]. Nowadays, most of the automotive makers, such as Audi, Volkswagen, Toyota, Daimler-Benz, Volvo, Ford, etc., use NFRCs to produce components. The continually growing demands for lightweight and fuel-efficient vehicles will further push the growth of NFRCs in the automotive market. There are other exciting market trends going forward in many different industries. For example, tri-dimensional hybrid natural fiber reinforcement preforms have been used recently by sports car manufacturers, such as Porsche and even McLaren in Formula 1 .Other applications of NFRCs include sport equipment, musical instruments, aerospace, construction industry [12-14], and ballistic armour [15,16].

Several types of natural fibers are currently used in industry, such as jute, sisal, oil palm, kenaf, and flax, which are well established in the global market with a well-defined production line. However, new promising natural fibers are being discovered and used on a smaller scale or are still being used only for research. This is the case of the buriti and curauáfibers, for example, that still need some improvements in their production line to be more commercially affordable and reach widespread use [17,18]. They are used as reinforcement fibers in thermoset or thermoplastic polymeric matrix in a variety of applications [19]. Depending upon the matrix type, NFRCs are categorized into completely biodegradable or partially biodegradable composites.The growing importance of natural fiber reinforced composites is reflected by the increasing number of publications (e.g., reviews, patents, book chapters, and books) during the recent years [20-25]. Therefore, it is important to study their thermal and mechanical behaviour in order to utilize their full potential. The thermal stability of natural fiber composites is a relevant aspect to be considered as the processing temperature plays a crucial role in the fabrication process of the composites. At higher temperatures, the natural fiber components (i.e., cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin), start to degrade and the major properties (mechanical and thermal) of the composite change. Intense research efforts are continuously made and some of the shortcomings of NFRCs were addressed by recent advancements in fiber treatment and modification, exploration of new natural fibers, and hybridization. The fiber modification techniques provide improved fiber–matrix interfacial adhesion, improved fiber roughness, and wettability and depend on the particular fiber/matrix used and the composite application, while the hybridization methods provide flexibility in fiber selection for the material properties according to the end-use application requirements.

Even though there are many recent review articles concerning the use of natural fibers in the production of natural hybrid composites [26-34], one topic that was not covered in any significant detail relates to the thermal characterisation of NFRCs. This paper provides an overview of the recent advances in the thermal properties of natural and hybrid natural fiber composites in thermoset and thermoplastic polymeric matrices. First, the main factors that affect the thermal properties of natural and hybrid fiber composite materials (fiber and matrix type, the presence of additive fillers, fiber content and orientation, the treatment of the fibers, manufacturing process, and type of loading) are briefly presented. Further, the methods used to determine the thermal properties of natural and hybrid composites are discussed. Finally, some conclusions and critical challenges and future perspectives and research activities are summarized.

Influencing Factors

The main factors that affect the thermal properties of natural and hybrid fiber compo-site materials are: fiber and matrix type, the presence of additive fillers, fiber content and orientation, the treatment of the fibers, manufacturing process, and type of loading [35].

Methods Used to Determine the Thermal Properties of Natural and Hybrid Composites

The following methods are used

a) Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)

b) Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)

c) Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA)

Conclusions

Thermal analysis can provide useful information for the development of new materials and optimization of the selection process of these materials for new applications. The most common thermal properties studied in the literature are: the percentage of weight loss, the degradation temperature, Tg, and viscoelastic properties (storage modulus, loss modulus, and the damping factor). Different factors affect the thermal properties of natural fiber composites (i.e., fiber and matrix type, the presence of fillers, fiber content, and fiber orientation, the chemical treatment of the fibers, manufacturing process, and type of loading). It is crucial to ensure that the natural fibers used in the composites can withstand the heat required during the fabrication process and retain their characteristics after exposure to heat. Different approaches were used in the literature for the enhancement of thermal properties of natural fiber-based composite materials. For example, using natural fibers with low lignin content leads to a better thermal performance of composites. Another approach involves the removal of lignin through fiber treatment. Finally, the incorporation of synthetic fillers or synthetic fibers in natural fiber reinforced composites increase their thermal stability.

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A Narrative Enquiry on the Ethno-Religious Conflict on the Health of Women in Plateau, Nigeria

1 Reply

DOI: 10.31038/AWHC.2024722

Abstract

This study investigates the impact of ethno-religious conflict on the health of women in Plateau State, Nigeria, utilizing a comprehensive review of existing documents and literature. Plateau State, often referred to as the “Home of Peace and Tourism,” has been plagued by persistent ethno-religious violence, which has had profound implications for the health and well-being of its female population. This research synthesizes data from governmental reports, non-governmental organisation (NGO) publications, academic journals, and health surveys to delineate the multifaceted health challenges faced by women in this region. The findings reveal that ethno-religious conflicts in Plateau State have significantly exacerbated physical, mental, and reproductive health issues among women. The physical health impacts include increased rates of injuries, malnutrition, and infectious diseases due to disrupted living conditions and healthcare services. Psychologically, women experience heightened levels of stress, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a result of exposure to violence, displacement, and the loss of family members. Furthermore, reproductive health is severely affected, with limited access to prenatal and postnatal care, higher instances of sexual violence, and inadequate menstrual health management. The study implicated policymakers, health care providers, humanitarian organisations, faith-based organisation working in Plateau State. Recommendations are discussed.

Keywords

Religion, Ethnicity, Health, Women, Plateau, Nigeria

Introduction

Ethno-religious conflicts have long been a persistent challenge in various parts of Nigeria, significantly impacting the social fabric and overall well-being of its population. Plateau State, located in the central region of Nigeria, is one of the areas most affected by these conflicts. The intersection of ethnic diversity and religious plurality in Plateau has often led to violent clashes between different groups, resulting in substantial socio-economic and health-related repercussions. The health of women, in particular, has been severely affected by these conflicts. Women in conflict zones often face unique vulnerabilities, including displacement, loss of livelihoods, and increased exposure to violence and exploitation. These factors collectively exacerbate health issues ranging from physical injuries and psychological trauma to disruptions in maternal and child healthcare services [1,2].

In Plateau State, the cyclical nature of ethno-religious violence has created a volatile environment where healthcare delivery is consistently disrupted. Hospitals and clinics are often targets during conflicts, leading to their destruction or abandonment, which severely limits access to essential medical services for women. Additionally, the breakdown of social networks and support systems further compounds the health challenges faced by women, as they are often left to cope with the aftermath of violence with limited resources and support [3].

Studies have shown that women in conflict-affected areas of Plateau State experience higher rates of physical and mental health issues compared to those in more stable regions. For instance, maternal mortality rates are significantly higher in these areas due to the lack of access to emergency obstetric care and skilled birth attendants. Furthermore, the pervasive fear and stress associated with ongoing conflict contribute to a higher prevalence of mental health disorders, such as depression and anxiety, among women [4,5].

This study aims to explore the multifaceted impact of ethno-religious conflict on the health of women in Plateau State, Nigeria, and to identify potential strategies for mitigating these effects. By examining the direct and indirect health consequences of conflict and highlighting the experiences of affected women, this research seeks to contribute to a better understanding of the challenges and inform policy and programmatic responses to support women’s health in conflict-affected regions.

Research Methodology

This study is a qualitative study using narrative method. The narrative method is a qualitative research approach that focuses on the collection, analysis, and interpretation of stories to understand the experiences, meanings, and cultural contexts of individuals or groups. Data was gotten from gazettes, periodicals, journal articles and archives of humanitarian organization such as governmental organizations, non-governmental organisations, civil based organizations, community based organization and faith-based organization. The data was analyzed using discourse analysis.

Ethno-Religious Conflict in Plateau, Nigeria

Plateau State, located in central Nigeria, has been a hotspot for ethno-religious conflicts for several decades. This region, known for its ethnic and religious diversity, has witnessed recurrent violent clashes between different groups, primarily driven by competition over land, political power, and resources. These conflicts are often framed along ethnic and religious lines, exacerbating tensions and leading to significant loss of life, displacement, and destruction of property. The roots of ethno-religious conflicts in Plateau State can be traced back to colonial and post-colonial policies that disrupted traditional land ownership and governance structures. The British colonial administration’s divide-and-rule tactics, coupled with the post-independence government’s failure to address these divisions, laid the groundwork for contemporary conflicts [6].

Plateau State is home to over 50 ethnic groups, with the Berom, Afizere, and Anaguta being the indigenous ethnicities, while the Hausa-Fulani are significant settler communities. The state is also religiously diverse, with a roughly equal distribution of Christians and Muslims. This diversity, while a potential strength has often been exploited by political actors to mobilize support and resources, deepening ethnic and religious divides. Several factors contribute to the ethno-religious conflicts in Plateau State. First, the competition for fertile land and grazing rights between indigenous farming communities and migrant herders is a primary driver of conflict. This competition has intensified with population growth and environmental changes, leading to frequent clashes. Second, the political marginalization of certain ethnic groups fuels resentment and conflict. Indigenous groups often feel that the settler communities, particularly the Hausa-Fulani, are favored in political appointments and economic opportunities. Third, religious identity is a significant factor in Plateau’s conflicts. Incidents of religious violence elsewhere in Nigeria often spill over into Plateau State, inflaming local tensions. Both Christians and Muslims perceive themselves as victims of marginalization and discrimination, leading to mutual suspicion and hostility. Fourth, high levels of youth unemployment and poverty create a fertile ground for recruitment into militant groups. Young people, feeling disenfranchised and without prospects, are easily mobilized by leaders who exploit ethnic and religious narratives for their purposes [7-11].

The impacts of the conflicts in Plateau State cannot be underestimated. First, there is the loss of life and property. Thousands have been killed in violent clashes, and many more have been injured or displaced. Entire communities have been destroyed, with homes, schools, and places of worship burnt down [3]. Second, the conflicts have led to massive internal displacement, with many people living in camps under harsh conditions. Displacement disrupts education, healthcare, and economic activities, perpetuating poverty and instability. Third, the continuous cycle of violence has caused deep psychological trauma among the affected populations, particularly women and children. This trauma manifests in increased mental health issues and social fragmentation. Fourth, the persistent conflicts have severely affected the local economy. Agriculture, the mainstay of the state’s economy, has been disrupted, leading to food insecurity and economic decline [12-14].

Various efforts have been made to address the conflicts in Plateau State but the issue has continued to escalate with women being at the receiving end. The first effort of the government is the deployment of security agencies. The Nigerian government has deployed security forces to quell violence and established commissions of inquiry to investigate the causes of conflicts. However, these measures have often been criticized for being reactive rather than preventive [15]. Another intervention of the government was the setting the pace for dialogue and reconciliation initiatives. Local and international organizations have initiated dialogue and reconciliation programs aimed at fostering understanding and cooperation between conflicting groups. These initiatives include peace education, interfaith dialogues, and community mediation [7]. Also, there are the economic empowerment programs such as vocational training and economic empowerment programs targeting youth. These programs aim to reduce unemployment and provide alternative livelihoods. Unfortunately, these strategies have not yielded the needed results because the ethno-religious conflicts in Plateau State are complex and multifaceted, rooted in historical grievances, competition for resources, political marginalization, and religious tensions [16].

Women and Conflict in Nigeria

Women in Nigeria are significantly affected by various forms of conflict, including ethno-religious violence, insurgency, communal clashes, and political unrest. These conflicts, which are prevalent in different regions of the country, have profound and multifaceted impacts on women’s lives. It is important to state that ethno-religious conflicts, particularly in the Middle Belt and northern regions, have a devastating impact on women. These conflicts often arise from long-standing ethnic tensions and religious differences, exacerbated by competition over land and resources. Women are frequently targeted in these conflicts, experiencing violence, displacement, and loss of livelihoods [10].

Also, the Boko Haram insurgency in northeastern Nigeria is one of the most severe conflicts affecting women. Boko Haram’s brutal tactics, including mass abductions, sexual violence, and forced marriages, have garnered international attention. Women and girls are particularly vulnerable to these abuses, which have long-lasting physical and psychological effects. Furthermore, during communal clashes and resource-based conflicts women are the targets. In various parts of Nigeria, communal clashes often revolve around land disputes, resource control, and herder-farmer tensions. These conflicts, prevalent in states like Benue, Taraba, and Kaduna, disrupt communities and displace thousands of women and children. The loss of homes and livelihoods significantly affects women’s ability to provide for their families [17,18].

Women are also affected by political violence, especially during election periods. Political thuggery, assassinations, and post-election violence create an environment of insecurity that disproportionately affects women, limiting their participation in political processes and exposing them to further violence. The impact of the conflict on women cannot be overemphasized. It causes physical violence and sexual exploitation. Women in conflict zones are often subjected to physical violence and sexual exploitation. Rape and other forms of sexual violence are used as weapons of war, leading to severe physical injuries, unwanted pregnancies, and sexually transmitted infections. These experiences not only cause immediate harm but also have long-term health implications. It resulted in displacement and humanitarian crisis for the women. Conflicts in Nigeria frequently result in mass displacement. Women and children constitute a significant portion of the internally displaced population. Displacement exacerbates existing vulnerabilities, as women in camps often face inadequate living conditions, limited access to healthcare, and increased risk of exploitation. Also, it has resulted in economic hardship for women [19-21].

Conflict-induced displacement and disruption of economic activities lead to significant economic hardships for women. Many women lose their means of livelihood and struggle to provide for their families. The destruction of markets, farmlands, and other economic resources further deepens poverty and economic instability among women. Also, the psychological impact of conflict on women is profound. Women who have experienced violence, displacement, and the loss of loved ones often suffer from severe mental health issues, including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The lack of mental health services in conflict zones exacerbates these problems, leaving many women without the support they need [22,23].

There is also disruption of education and healthcare. Conflicts disrupt essential services, including education and healthcare. Many girls drop out of school due to insecurity and displacement, limiting their future opportunities and perpetuating cycles of poverty and dependency. Healthcare services, particularly maternal and reproductive health services, are often severely limited during conflicts, increasing risks for pregnant women and new mothers [24].

Women and Conflict in Plateau, Nigeria

Women in Nigeria are profoundly affected by various forms of conflict, facing physical violence, displacement, economic hardships, psychological trauma, and disruptions to education and healthcare. It has resulted in the physical violence and sexual exploitation. Women in conflict zones are at high risk of physical violence and sexual exploitation. During clashes, women are often targeted for rape and other forms of sexual violence as a tactic of war and intimidation. Such violence has devastating immediate and long-term effects on women’s physical and mental health, leading to trauma, unwanted pregnancies, and sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS [25].

Women have encountered displacement and loss of livelihood in Plateau, Nigeria. Ethno-religious conflicts frequently lead to large-scale displacement. Women and children make up the majority of internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Plateau State. Displacement disrupts women’s lives profoundly, stripping them of their homes, livelihoods, and social networks. Many displaced women find themselves in IDP camps, where living conditions are often dire, and access to basic necessities like food, clean water, and healthcare is limited. The destruction of property and loss of livelihoods during conflicts disproportionately affect women, who often bear the primary responsibility for their families’ welfare. With traditional agricultural activities disrupted, many women struggle to provide for their children, leading to increased poverty and economic instability. Additionally, women frequently face barriers to accessing financial support and resources needed to rebuild their lives after displacement [26,27].

The psychological impact of conflict on women in Plateau State cannot be overstated. Women who have experienced violence, displacement, and the loss of loved ones often suffer from severe mental health issues, including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) [22]. The lack of mental health services exacerbates these problems, leaving many women without the support they need to recover. Conflicts disrupt essential services, including education and healthcare. Women and girls are particularly affected by these disruptions. Many girls drop out of school due to displacement or insecurity, limiting their future opportunities and perpetuating cycles of poverty and dependency. Healthcare services, especially maternal and reproductive health services, are often severely limited during conflicts, increasing risks for pregnant women and new mothers [24].

Health of Women in IDP Camps

Internally displaced persons (IDPs) camps are temporary shelters established to accommodate people who have been forced to flee their homes due to conflict, violence, or natural disasters. In many regions, including Nigeria, women make up a significant portion of the IDP population. The health of women in IDP camps is a critical issue, as they face numerous challenges that impact their physical, mental, and reproductive health. There are physical health challenges that women go through. There is poor living condition for women in IDP camps. IDP camps are often overcrowded and lack adequate sanitation facilities, which contribute to the spread of infectious diseases. Women in these camps are at heightened risk of contracting illnesses such as cholera, malaria, and respiratory infections due to poor hygiene and limited access to clean water [21].

Also, there is limited access to healthcare services in IDP camps. Access to healthcare services in IDP camps is often severely limited. Health facilities are typically understaffed and under-resourced, making it difficult for women to receive the care they need. This is particularly problematic for pregnant women and those with chronic health conditions. The lack of access to maternal healthcare services increases the risk of complications during pregnancy and childbirth, leading to higher maternal and infant mortality rates [28].

Furthermore there is malnutrition affecting women in IDP camps. Food insecurity is a common issue in IDP camps, where food supplies are often insufficient and lack nutritional diversity. Malnutrition is a significant health concern, particularly for pregnant and lactating women, who require increased nutritional intake. Malnourished women are more susceptible to health complications and have a higher risk of giving birth to underweight babies [29].

The mental health challenges of women cannot be underestimated. It has resulted in psychological trauma. The experiences that lead to displacement, such as violence, loss of family members, and destruction of homes, are traumatic. Women in IDP camps often suffer from severe psychological distress, including depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The lack of mental health services in these camps exacerbates the problem, leaving many women without the support they need to cope with their trauma [23].

It has led to increased gender-based violence. Women in IDP camps are at increased risk of gender-based violence (GBV), including domestic violence, sexual harassment, and rape. The lack of security and privacy in these camps makes women vulnerable to exploitation and abuse. GBV has profound impacts on women’s physical and mental health, leading to injuries, psychological trauma, and sexually transmitted infections [25].

There is the reproductive health challenge facing women. There is the lack of reproductive health services such as family planning, prenatal care, and childbirth assistance, are often inadequate in IDP camps. This lack of services leads to high rates of unintended pregnancies, unsafe abortions, and complications during childbirth. Women in IDP camps frequently lack access to contraception and other reproductive health supplies, further exacerbating these issues [28]. Also, there is the inadequate menstrual health management. Managing menstrual health in IDP camps is a significant challenge. Women often lack access to sanitary products, clean water, and private spaces to manage their menstruation, leading to poor menstrual hygiene. This can result in infections and other health complications, as well as contribute to feelings of shame and embarrassment [30].

Recommendation

Finding a roadmap towards solving the impact of ethno-religious crisis in plateau state requires a coordinated effort that combines healthcare, protection, mental health support, and empowerment initiatives is essential to address the complex challenges faced by these women. There is the need for the state government of Plateau state to collaborate with non-governmental organization and faith-based in supporting women affected by conflict in Nigeria. These organizations will assist in providing essential services, including food aid, healthcare, psychosocial support, and educational programs. There is also the need to strengthen healthcare infrastructure. This could be done through an expansion of healthcare facilities in IDP camps. This could be done through the increase in the number and capacity of healthcare facilities in conflict-affected areas to ensure accessible and adequate medical care for women. There is also the need for the government, NGO’s and FBO’s to ensure that healthcare centers where sick and displaced women are kept are well-equipped with necessary medical supplies and staffed by trained healthcare professionals, particularly those skilled in trauma care and reproductive health services.

The importance of mobile health clinic cannot be overemphasized. There is the need to deploy mobile health clinics to reach women in remote or insecure areas, providing essential services such as vaccinations, prenatal and postnatal care, and treatment for injuries and infectious diseases. Also, there is the need to implement comprehensive psychosocial support programs to address the mental health needs of women affected by conflict. These programs should include counseling, support groups, and trauma-informed care. Furthermore, training for healthcare workers is paramount. Train healthcare workers in mental health care to recognize and treat conditions such as PTSD, depression, and anxiety among women in conflict zones.

There is the need to improve reproductive health services. Access to reproductive health Supplies should be improved. Furthermore, ensure that women in conflict areas have access to reproductive health supplies, including contraceptives, sanitary products, and safe childbirth kits. Also, establish safe spaces within IDP camps and affected communities where women can receive reproductive health services and information in a secure and private environment.

There is the need to strengthen protection mechanisms within IDP camps and conflict-affected communities to prevent gender-based violence. This includes improving security, increasing the presence of female security personnel, and implementing zero-tolerance policies against perpetrators of physical and sexual violence against women in IDP camps. There is the need to provide medical care, legal assistance, and psychosocial support for women in IDP camps.

Conclusion

The ethno-religious conflict in Plateau State, Nigeria, has had a profound and detrimental impact on the health of women in the region. The violence and instability have exacerbated physical, mental, and reproductive health issues, creating a public health crisis that demands urgent attention. Women in Plateau State face heightened risks of injury, malnutrition, and infectious diseases due to disrupted living conditions and inadequate access to healthcare. Additionally, the psychological toll of conflict, including stress, anxiety, and PTSD, has severely impacted their mental health. Reproductive health has also suffered, with limited access to essential prenatal and postnatal care, and a rise in instances of sexual violence. To address these challenges, it is imperative to strengthen healthcare infrastructure, enhance mental health support, and improve reproductive health services. Protection mechanisms must be fortified to prevent gender-based violence, and comprehensive support must be provided for survivors. Ensuring food security and nutrition is crucial for the overall health and resilience of women and their families. A multi-sectoral approach that promotes collaboration between government agencies, NGOs, international organizations, and local communities is essential for holistic and sustainable solutions. Policy advocacy and robust monitoring and evaluation systems are needed to ensure effective implementation and continuous improvement of interventions. By addressing the health needs of women in conflict-affected areas comprehensively, stakeholders can work towards mitigating the adverse effects of ethno-religious conflict and enhancing the overall well-being of women in Plateau State. The commitment to peace-building, healthcare access and women’s empowerment will pave the way for a healthier, more resilient community. The ethno-religious conflict in Plateau, Nigeria, has profound and far-reaching impacts on the health of women. By implementing these recommendations, stakeholders can work towards mitigating these effects and improving the overall health and well-being of women in conflict-affected areas. A coordinated effort that combines healthcare, protection, mental health support, and empowerment initiatives is essential to address the complex challenges faced by these women.

References

  1. Ikelegbe A (2005) The economy of conflict in the oil rich Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Nordic Journal of African Studies 14(2): 208-234.
  2. Pogu J (2018) Ethno-religious crises and the challenges of sustainable development in Nigeria. African Journal of History and Culture 10(5): 54-62.
  3. Human Rights Watch (2013) Leave Everything to God: Accountability for Inter-Communal Violence in Plateau and Kaduna States, Nigeria. Human Rights Watch.
  4. Onifade CA, Imhonopi D (2013) Towards national integration in Nigeria: Jumping the hurdles. Research on Humanities and Social Sciences 3(9): 75-82.
  5. Adebayo AA (2011) The challenge of poverty alleviation in Nigeria. Poverty Alleviation Strategies and Sustainable Development in Nigeria 3: 45-54.
  6. Danfulani UHD, Fwatshak SU (2002) The September 2001 Events in Jos, Nigeria. African Affairs 101(403): 243-255.
  7. Best SG (2007) Conflict and Peace Building in Plateau State, Nigeria. Spectrum Books.
  8. Blench R (2004) Natural Resource Conflicts in North-Central Nigeria: A Handbook and Case Studies. Mallam Dendo Ltd.
  9. Egwu S (2004) Ethnic and Religious Violence in Nigeria. St Stephen Book House.
  10. Salawu B (2010) Ethno-religious conflicts in Nigeria: Causal analysis and proposals for new management strategies. European Journal of Social Sciences 13(3): 345-353.
  11. Higazi A (2011) The Jos Crisis: A Recurrent Nigerian Tragedy. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung.
  12. International Crisis Group (2012) Curbing Violence in Nigeria (I): The Jos Crisis. International Crisis Group.
  13. Okoli AC, Atelhe GA (2014) Nomads Against Natives: A Political Ecology of Herder/Farmer Conflicts in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. American International Journal of Contemporary Research 4(2): 76-88.
  14. Adamu PA, Ben A (2015) The Impact of Ethno-Religious Conflicts on Women and Children in Northern Nigeria. Global Journal of Human-Social Science Research 15(4): 12-20.
  15. Ibrahim J, Kazah-Toure T (2003) Ethno-Religious Conflicts in Northern Nigeria. Centre for Research and Documentation.
  16. Mercy Corps (2015) Youth and Conflict: A Toolkit for Intervention. Mercy Corps.
  17. Human Rights Watch (2014) Those Terrible Weeks in Their Camp: Boko Haram Violence against Women and Girls in Northeast Nigeria. Human Rights Watch.
  18. International Crisis Group (2018) Stopping Nigeria’s Spiraling Farmer-Herder Violence. International Crisis Group.
  19. Akiyode-Afolabi A, Arogundade L (2003) Gender Audit-2003 Election and Issues in Women’s Political Participation in Nigeria. Women Advocates Research and Documentation Centre (WARDC)
  20. Amnesty International (2015) Nigeria: Human Rights Agenda. Amnesty International
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  22. Olujide JO (2016) Gender-based violence in Nigeria: Causes and Remedies. Journal of Research in Peace, Gender and Development 6(3): 32-40.
  23. Olley BO (2006) Perceived Stigma and Barriers to Accessing Health Services among Women in Conflict Zones in Nigeria. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 41(10): 743-748.
  24. UNICEF (2017) The Impact of Conflict on Women and Girls in West and Central Africa. UNICEF.
  25. Amnesty International. Nigeria: Trapped in the Cycle of Violence. Amnesty International Publications.
  26. Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (2013) Nigeria: Fragmented Response to Internal Displacement amid Boko Haram Attacks and Flood Season. IDMC.
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  28. UNFPA (2016) The State of the World’s Midwifery. United Nations Population Fund.
  29. World Food Programme (2017) Nigeria: Food Security and Nutrition Assessment. WFP.
  30. UNICEF (2018) Menstrual Hygiene Management in Emergencies: Consolidated Response in Nigeria. UNICEF.

The Evolving Landscape of Gender and Happiness: A Commentary “Does Reversal of the Educational Gender Gap Affect Men’s Happiness: Evidence from China”

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DOI: 10.31038/AWHC.2024721

 
 

The study by Steven Zhongwu Li and Fengzhi Lu, titled “Does Reversal of the Educational Gender Gap Affect Men’s Happiness? Evidence from China,” explores an essential aspect of social dynamics within a rapidly evolving Chinese society. This research examines the relationship between a wife’s educational advantage over her husband and the resulting impact on the husband’s happiness. The study reveals a significant shift in gender attitudes and the evolving role of education in shaping personal happiness [1].

Context and Global Trends

Globally, there has been a marked increase in the number of women surpassing men in educational attainment, a phenomenon often referred to as the “educational gender gap reversal.” China exemplifies this trend, driven by economic development and policy initiatives aimed at promoting gender equality in education. Since 2009, the proportion of female undergraduates and college students in China has consistently exceeded 50%, with female graduate students surpassing their male counterparts since 2010. This shift aligns with patterns observed in many developed countries, challenging traditional gender norms that have historically privileged men’s education and professional development over women’s [2].

Theoretical Framework

Li and Lu’s analysis is grounded in the role-action theory, which posits that societal expectations and norms significantly influence individual behavior and happiness. As gender norms evolve towards greater equality, men’s acceptance of and adaptation to these changes can enhance their happiness. Conversely, adherence to traditional norms that privilege male educational and professional dominance may lead to feelings of insecurity and decreased well-being when confronted with a spouse’s higher educational attainment [3].

Methodology and Key Findings

Li and Lu leverage the nationally representative China Family Panel Studies dataset to analyze the impact of this educational shift on men’s happiness. By meticulously controlling for various individual, familial, and community-level factors, the authors provide robust evidence suggesting that husbands are indeed happier when their wives are more educated than they are. So, the research challenges traditional gender stereotypes that associate a man’s masculinity and status with being the primary breadwinner or the more educated partner in a relationship. Instead, it underscores the growing appreciation among men for the benefits of having a spouse with educational advantages.

This statistical rigor is further enhanced by the application of instrumental variable regression, a technique designed to address potential endogeneity issues. The authors contend with the possibility that men embracing egalitarian gender norms may be predisposed to enter into unions with women who have educational advantages, whereas those with more traditional views might shy away from such arrangements. To counterbalance this, the researchers introduce an instrument that correlates with the wife’s educational edge while being exogenous to the husband’s current state of happiness. Conscious of the limitations inherent in their chosen instrument, the researchers further employ Lewbel’s method to construct an alternative instrument [4,5].

Nuanced Heterogeneity

A key aspect highlighted in the research is the nuanced heterogeneity in this relationship. Specifically, the positive association between a wife’s educational advantages and her husband’s happiness is found to be particularly strong among men who are highly educated themselves, younger in age, and residents of China’s eastern region. This subset of men is more likely to embrace egalitarian gender ideologies, underscoring a generational and geographical shift in attitudes towards gender equality [6,7].

However, the researchers do not rest on this general observation. They explore deeper into the issue of potential clustering effects, suggesting that the educational advantage of wives is exclusively confined to specific demographic subsets. Contrary to this assumption, their calculations reveal that wives with educational advantages are dispersed across all education levels, age groups, and regions, albeit with varying prevalence.

The study attributes this trend to the influence of the country’s opening-up policy since 1978, which has facilitated the adoption of progressive gender norms and encouraged men to support their partners’ educational and professional aspirations. These men are at the forefront of embracing a new social norm where female education and career success are seen as complementary to, rather than competing with, their own.

Considerations of Sample Selection and Women’s Well-being

The study focused specifically on married couples, excluding those who divorced as a result of the reversal of the gender gap in education. This exclusion raises concerns about sample selection bias. Nevertheless, it had minimal influence on the main findings, underscoring the significant emphasis Chinese society places on family and marital stability. The study also highlighted that China’s divorce rate is considerably lower compared to Western countries, with various measures implemented to prevent divorces. In the future, researchers should address the sample selection problem rather than emphasizing the small number of divorced samples.

While the primary focus of the research is on men’s happiness, the researchers also incorporate women’s well-being into their study. Interestingly, in the context of a reversed education gender gap, they discovered a potential inverse relationship between a wife’s educational advantage and her subjective well-being. This finding suggests that traditional gender ideologies persist among many women, who prioritize male dominance in education and career pursuits while believing that women should devote more attention to familial roles. Consequently, when gender roles are reversed, such as when women surpass men in educational attainment, it challenges deeply ingrained traditional notions of gender and negatively impacts women’s overall happiness.

Conclusion and Policy Implications

The impact of educational gender reversal on male happiness is profoundly relevant, reflecting the evolving dynamics of education and gender roles while challenging traditional norms and expectations. This understanding is crucial for policymakers, educators, and sociologists striving to cultivate inclusive and equitable educational environments. It underscores how socioeconomic progress has significantly shaped men’s perspectives, particularly among younger individuals, highly educated individuals, and those from improved socioeconomic backgrounds.

There is a growing recognition among men of women’s educational advantages and their positive impacts on male well-being. The findings have profound implications for societal structures and cultural narratives. They indicate that as women gain greater educational parity or surpass men, the conventional gender hierarchy is being reconfigured. Men who embrace this shift may experience increased happiness, challenging the notion that traditional gender roles are essential for male well-being. Furthermore, the study suggests that the normalization of marriages where women are the more educated partner could accelerate the transformation towards more equitable gender dynamics.

Li and Lu’s study provides a nuanced exploration of the complex interplay between education, gender, and happiness in contemporary China. It not only confirms the positive association between a wife’s educational advantage and her husband’s happiness but also elucidates the underlying factors that drive this correlation. The findings challenge conventional wisdom, highlight the importance of progressive gender attitudes, and underscore the transformative power of education in fostering a more equitable society. As China continues its trajectory of modernization, this research serves as a valuable compass guiding policymakers and society at large towards fostering environments where educational achievements are celebrated regardless of gender, contributing to enhanced happiness and well-being for all.

Acknowledgements

Dr. Steven Zhongwu Li expresses gratitude to his students Qiming Zhang, Yufei Huang, and Yinqi Huang at the School of Economics, Zhejiang University of Technology, for their participations in writing the short commentary within a brief period. He also thanks the editor of Archives of Women Health and Care for inviting him to write the short commentary on the published paper.

References

  1. Li SZ, Lu F (2024) Does reversal of the educational gender gap affect Men’s happiness: Evidence from China. Review of Development Economics 1-30.
  2. Chudnovskaya, M, Kashyap R (2020) Is the end of educational Hypergamy the end of status Hypergamy? Evidence from Sweden. European Sociological Review 36(3): 351-365.
  3. Akerlof GA, Kranton RE (2000) Economics and identity. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 115(3): 715-753.
  4. Nie, H, Xing C (2019) Education expansion, assortative marriage, and income inequality in China. China Economic Review 55: 37-51.
  5. Lewbel A (2012) Using heteroscedasticity to identify and estimate mismeasured and endogenous regressor models. Journal of Business & Economic Statistics 30(1): 67-80.
  6. Wei Si (2022) Higher education expansion and gender norms: Evidence from China. Journal of Population Economics 35(4): 1821-1858.
  7. Valentova M (2013) Age and sex differences in gender role attitudes in Luxembourg between 1999 and 2008. Work, Employment and Society 27(4): 639-657.

Primary Angiosarcoma of the Spleen: A Case Report and Clinical Pathological Study of 52 Cases

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DOI: 10.31038/CST.2024922

Abstract

Primary splenic angiosarcoma is an uncommon and fatal cancer that affects 2 out of every 10 million people worldwide, according to epidemiological incidence rates. For primary spleen angiosarcoma, there are not enough systematic clinical data available, there have been only 90 cases reported since 1950. In this study, we analyzed 25 publications published between January 1950 and November 2022, providing thorough information on 52 cases of main spleen angiosarcoma. We also described a case of primary spleen angiosarcoma with metastases to the liver and bone. This study will go into great length on the etiology, clinical manifestations, laboratory and pathological features, and available treatments for primary spleen angiosarcoma, with the purpose to provide a thorough review and guidance for clinical guidance of this rare disease.

Keywords

Spleen, Angiosarcoma, Systematic review, Clinical features, Pathology, Prognosis

Introduction

Primary splenic angiosarcoma is a rare and fatal neoplasm arising from vascular endothelial cells within the spleen; it was firstly described in 1879 by T. Langerhans. The incidence is 2 cases per 10 million people worldwide [1] and has a poor prognosis due to its high metastatic potential, it was reported that angiosarcoma has the poorest prognosis among all soft tissue sarcomas [2].

Case Report

A female patient, aged 43, was admitted to our hospital with complaints of “Upper left abdomen distension and fatigue persisting for a period of four months”. The patient had repeated discomfort and mild pain in the left upper quadrant for 4 months. There was an absence of any noticeable medical or familial history. Her blood pressure and breathing were normal at admission. There was a mild anemia visible in the conjunctiva. The cardiac rhythm was consistent, and the respiratory vibrations were visible. The abdomen was soft, and there were no swollen superficial lymph nodes, with spleen margin 2cm lower than the left rib. Clinical laboratory results revealed moderate anemia, thrombocytopenia, increased D-dimmer. Red blood cells 2.75×1012/L (normal range, 3.8-5.1×109/ L), hemoglobin 87 g/L (normal range, 115-150g/L), platelets 79×109/L (normal range, 125-350×109/L), D-dimmer 1058 ug/L (normal range, 0-550 ug/L). Liver and kidney functions were normal. The levels of serum tumor indicators, such as carbohydrate antigen 199 (CA199), carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA), α-fetoprotein (AFP), and carbohydrate-125 (CA-125), were all within the normal ranges. We also excluded hepatitis B, hepatitis C, syphilis, AIDS.

Electronic gastrography revealed multiple stomach and duodenal ulcers. Ultrasound Doppler showed a 7 cm × 6 cm mass in the spleen, the internal echo was less uniform, and the blood flow was rich. The abdominal CT showed a mass measuring 13×12cm in the spleen as the right red arrow indicated (Figure 1a), the patient had very large spleen, which oppressed the stomach, gastric cavity was significantly reduced as the left red arrow indicated, we also noticed obvious liver metastasis before surgery (Figure 1b). The patient received complete splenectomy and partial hepatectomy. One month after the surgery, abdominal CT showed tumor metastasis to gastric wall, as we can see from the CT image that some part of gastric walls was thick as the red arrow showed (Figure 1c).

FIG 1

Figure 1: The abdominal CT showed a mass measuring 13 × 12 cm in the spleen as the right red arrow indicated (a), the patient had very large spleen, which oppressed the stomach, gastric cavity was significantly reduced as the left red arrow indicated, we also noticed obvious liver metastasis before surgery (b). The patient received complete splenectomy and partial hepatectomy. One month after the surgery, abdominal CT showed tumor metastasis to gastric wall, as we can see from the CT image that some part of gastric walls was thick as the red arrow showed (c).

We performed an exploratory laparoscopy for her, the neoplasm was located within the central region of the moderately enlarged spleen, and there was no obvious invasion and metastasis to the liver. We performed splenectomy, the cut-off was sent for pathology examination. The spleen was 20cm × 14cm × 10cm, red with foci bleeding, there was an 8 cm × 7 cm × 7 cm neoplasm within it. Under the microscope, tumor cells were arranged into spindles and coincide with each other into irregular revascularization, the nuclear was large, deep stained, nuclear mitotic phase were common, the tumor was polymorphic and composed of spindle cells and multinucleated giant cells arranged in a storiform pattern, which mimics undifferential polymorphic sarcoma. H&E stain, ×10 (Figure 2A left) and H&E stain, ×40 (Figure 2A right). Tumor cells were arranged into spindles and coincide with each other into irregular revascularization. H&E stain, ×40 (Figure 2B left) and H&E stain, ×200 (Figure 2B right). The nuclear was large, deep stained, nuclear mitotic phase were common. H&E stain, ×40 (Figure 2C left) and H&E stain, ×100 (Figure 2C right). The immunohistochemical analysis revealed that the tumor cells exhibited positive expression of endothelial markers of CD34++, FVIII++ and viimentin++ (Figure 3).

FIG 2

Figure 2: Histopathological examination revealed that the tumor was polymorphic and composed of spindle cells and multinucleated giant cells arranged in a storiform pattern, which mimics undifferential polymorphic sarcoma. H&E stain, ×10 (A left) and H&E stain, ×40 (A right). Tumor cells were arranged into spindles and coincide with each other into irregular revascularization. H&E stain, ×40 (B left) and H&E stain, ×200 (B right). We noticed red with foci bleeding. The nuclear was large, deep stained, nuclear mitotic phase were common. H&E stain, ×40 (C left) and H&E stain, ×100 (C right).

FIG 3

Figure 3: Immunohistochemical stains were performed with a panel of monoclonal antibodies. It showed positive for ALK, ×40 (A left) and ×200 (A right); CD68, ×40 (B left) and ×200 (B right), and negative for CD45, ×40 (C left) and ×200 (C right).

It was negative for desmin, LCA, cytokeratin, lysozyme and S100. Liver nodules were confirmed by immunohistochemical analysis to be homologous with spleen.

The patient received postoperative 4 cycles of IFO and paclitaxel chemotherapy. Although the patient was still alive 5 month after surgery, she experienced body weight loss and cachexia.

Systematic Review

Primary splenic angiosarcoma accounts for 10% of all primary splenic malignancies and 2.6% of all angiosarcoma cases [3]. Benign spleen vascular neoplasm [4] include hematoma, lymphangioma, hemangioma, extra-medullary hematopoiesis (EMH), and sclerosing angiomatoid nodular transformation (SANT). Malignant spleen vascular neoplasms include angionsarcoma, myeloma, lymphoma, and metastases tumors. Littoral Cell angiomas have malignant potential, although they were once considered benign [4]. Spleen angiosarcoma derives from the spleen sinus endothelial cells, extramedullary hematopoietic is typical.

Etiology

Arsenic, vinyl chloride, ionizing radiation, and chemotherapy for lymphoma are among the potential causes [5,6]. Nonetheless, certain research indicates that splenic angiosarcoma arises from pre-existing benign tumors, including hemangioma or hemangio-endothelioma. In the 1970s scientists had explored correlation between vinyl chloride exposure and angiosarcoma, and an estimated 25%-30% of angiosarcoma was related to direct or indirect contact with vinyl chlorideare. Tumor suppressor TP53 and K-RAS gene mutation is found to be responsible for more than 60% of angiosarcoma. The most common mutation sites are axon 1 of K-RAS, and exons 5, 6, 7 and 8 of the TP53 gene. However, gene mutations in angiogenesis signaling are also found to occur in nearly 40% of angiosarcoma, which would reinforce the therapeutic hypothesis to target angiogenesis signaling in angiosarcoma.

Clinical Features

Different from studies that there are more male patients than female, the cases included 24 males and 28 females [7], aged 2 years old [8,9] to 89 years old, the average age at presentation is 54.5 years, with a median age of 49 years. There was a statistically significant difference in the mean age at presentation between females (57 years) and boys (46 years). The most two youngest patients were 2 years old and 7 years old, there were no significant radiation or chemical exposure, gene mutations may play a more important role for these two patients.

The clinical manifestations of PSA vary significantly [10], we made a summary of clinical features of primary splenic angiosarcoma which included 52 cases (Table 1). The most common symptoms at presentation include left upper quadrant pain /abdominal pain (n=33, 63%), chronic weight loss/anorexia/anemia/fatigue (n=22, 42%), complete or incomplete spleen rupture (n=12, 23%). Other less common symptoms include gastrointestinal tract bleeding (n=4, 8%) hemoptysis (n=1, 2%), right flank pain (n=1, 2%). Thrombocytopenia occurs in case 32 and 37; both patients had bone metastasis and moderate to severe anemia.

Table 1: Clinical features of primary splenic angiosarcoma (52 cases).
We included and analyzed 24 males and 28 females, aged 2 years old to 89 years old, with an average age of 54.5 years at presentation (median, 49 years). The mean age at presentation for females was statistically significantly older (57 years) than men (46 years). The most two youngest patients were 2 years old and 7 years old, there were no significant radiation or chemical exposure, gene mutations may play a more important role for these two young patients.
The clinical manifestations of PSA vary significantly. The most common symptoms at presentation include left upper quadrant pain /abdominal pain (n=33, 63%), chronic weight loss/anorexia/ anemia/fatigue (n=22, 42%), complete or incomplete spleen rupture (n=12, 23%). Other less common symptoms include gastrointestinal tract bleeding (n=4, 8%) hemoptysis (n=1, 2%), right flank pain (n=1, 2%). Thrombocytopenia occurs in case 32 and 37; both patients had bone metastasis and moderate to severe anemia.
Physical examination revealed splenomegaly in 29 patients and hepatomegaly in 7 patients. Spleen rupture occurred in 12 patients (n=12, 23%). The most common physical finding was splenomegaly (71%). 17 of 21 patients were reported to have anemia. There were 9 patients without obvious physical findings on admission. The most common metastatic sites in descending order were to the liver (31/52), lung (24/52), lymph nodes (19/52), bone (15/52), adrenal glands (6/52), gastrointestinal tract (6/52), brain (4/52). Diaphragm and stomach were less involved compared with the listed above, 4 patients were found to be widely metastatic at diagnosis.

Case no.

 Age/gender Admission symptoms Physical findings Sites of metastasis treatment

follow-up OS
1 36/M LUQ Pain HSM Liver/Lung/LNs Surg Chem 5 mo
2 73/M Abd pain/fatigue/GI bleeding HSM,F GI tract Surg 2 mo
3 76/F LUQ Pain SM Liver/Lung/LNs/Bone Surg Rad 7 mo
4 51/M Abd pain/fatigue/fever NONE Liver/Lung/LNs Surg 9 mo
5 73/F LUQ Pain SM Liver[1]/Lung Surg Rad Chem 3 mo
6 45/F Abd pain/Spleen rup SM Lung/LNs/Bone/Adrns Surg Rad Chem 4 mo
7 60/M Abd pain/fatigue SM Liver/Lung/Adrns/Diaphragm Surg Rad 4 mo
8 33/F Abd pain/Spleen rup SM Liver/Lung/LNs Surg Rad 4 mo
9 29/M Abd pain/fever SM Liver Surg 4 mo
10 50/M Abd pain/Spleen rup SM Liver/Lung/Adrns/Stomach Surg 24 mo
11 75/F Fever/weight loss/fatigue NONE Liver/Lung/LNs/Brain Surg Rad 10 yrs
12 68/M LUQ Pain NONE Widely metastasis Surg 8 mo
13 27/M LUQ Pain SM Lung/LNs/LNs/Bone/Adrns Surg Rad 3 mo
14 89/F LUQ Pain/fatigue SM Liver/Bone NONE 29 mo
15 46/M Abd Pain/fever/fatigue/hemoptysis HSM Widely metastasis Surg 1 mo
16 85/F Abd pain/Spleen rup SM Liver/Lung/LNs/Stomach /Brain Surg 1 mo
17 32/M Spleen rup/Fever/weight loss/fatigue SM Liver/Lung/LNs Surg 27 mo
18 55/M Found during lymphoma work-up SM Liver Surg 8yrs
19 56/M Abd pain SM Liver/Lung/Bone/Brain /Stomach Surg Rad 25 mo
20 68/M Abd pain/weekness/weight loss SM Liver/Lung/Bone/LNs Surg Rad 21 mo
21 59/M LLQ Pain/fatigue/spleen rup SM Widely metastasis Surg 29 mo
22 64/F Anorexia LUQ Pain Not alaviable Not alaviable Not alaviable
23 65/M Abd pain/weekness NONE Liver/Lung/Bone/LNs/Soft tissues Surg Rad 22 mo
24 62/F Asymptomatic NONE Widely metastasis Surg 1 mo
25 64/F LLQ Pain/fatigue /spleen rup NONE Liver/Lung/Bone/Brain[2] Surg 9 mo
26 68/F Abd pain/weekness NONE Liver/Lung/LNs/Adrns/Brain Surg 1 mo
27 69/F LUQ Pain/weekness/spleen rup SM Liver/Lung/Bone Surg 12 mo
28 49/M LUQ Pain/asthenia SM Liver/Lung/LNs Surg 8 mo
29 45/F LUQ Pain/Anemia SM Liver/Lung/LNs Surg 5 mo
30 46/F LUQPain/anorexia HSM Liver/Lung/Bone/LNs Surg 3 mo
31 55/M LUQ Pain/hemorrhagic ascitis HSM Fever Liver/Lung/Bone Surg 35 days
32 26/F LUQ Pain/severe anemia/thrombocytopenia HSM Fever Liver/Lung/Bone Surg 12 mo
33 65/F Asyptome NONE Lung/Bone Surg 13 yrs
34 77/F Abd Pain Spleen rup SM Liver/Lung/LNs Surg 2 weeks
35 13/F LUQ Pain Anemia SM No metastasis Surg 18 mo
36 25/F Anemia SM Bone/LNs Surg 12 mo
37 61/M Anemia Leukocytosis Thrombocytopenia SM Liver/Bone /LNs Surg 5 yrs
38 82/F Left Pleural effusion SM Diaghpram Surg 8 mon

LUQ, left upper quadrant; LLQ, left lower quadrant; Abd, abdomen; GI, gastrointestinal; rup, rupture; HSM, hepatosplenomegaly; SM, splenomegaly; LNs, lymph nodes; Adrns, adrenals; Surg, surgery Chem, chemeotherapy Rad, radiotherapy

Upon physical examination, 29 individuals had splenomegaly, while 7 patients presented hepatomegaly. Spleen rupture occurred in 12 patients (n=12, 23%). Spleen rupture can be further classified into complete and incomplete subcapsular rupture. Complete spleen rupture often leads to fetal hemorrhagic shock, whereas incomplete subcapsular rupture may not be obviously detected on admission and may not be that fetal. This could be the reason for the lack of a correlation between spleen rupture and clinical result. Splenomegaly accounted for 71% of all physical findings. Anemia was found in 17 out of 21 individuals.

There were 9 patients without obvious physical findings on admission. The most common metastatic sites in descending order were to the liver (31/52), lung (24/52), lymph nodes (19/52), bone (15/52), adrenal glands (6/52), gastrointestinal tract (6/52), brain (4/52). Diaphragm and stomach were less involved compared with the listed above, 4 patients were found to be widely metastatic at diagnosis. This might be explained by tumor cells transferred through the blood to most common distant organs like liver, lung, adrenal glands, and bone marrow [11,12] etc. A more concise summary of the detailed clinical features of 52 spleen primary angiosarcoma patients was made (Table 2).

Table 2: The most common symptoms at presentation for patients of primary splenic angiosarcoma.
This table concisely summarizes the detailed clinical features of 52 spleen primary angiosarcoma patients. The most common symptoms at presentation include LUQ Pain/ abdominal pain (n=33,63%), chronic weight loss/anorexia/anemia/fatigue (n=22,42%), complete or uncomplete spleen rupture (n=12,23%). Other less common symptoms at presentation include GT tract bleeding, hemoptysis, thrombocytopenia.

Symptoms at presentation

 Number (n)

Percentage (%)
LUQ Pain/abdominal pain

33

63
GT tract bleeding

4

8
Complete or uncomplete Spleen rupture

12

23
Chronic weight loss/anorexia/anemia/fatigue

22

42
Hemoptysis

1

2
Thrombocytopenia

2

4
Asymptomatic

1

2
Total

52

100

Thrombocytopenia occurs in case 32, 37, both with bone metastasis and moderate/severe anemia. LUQ, left upper quadrant; GI, gastrointestinal.

Diagnosis

The benign lesions found in the spleen include hemangiomas, hematomas, and sclerosing angiomatoid nodular transformation. Primary and metastatic lesions comprise a variety of malignant conditions, including lymphoma, angiosarcoma, and pleomorphic sarcoma. Metastases and lymphomas are included in this study because of their variety and importance, despite their tendency to exhibit hypo enhanced lesions in in comparison to the surrounding parenchyma. Littoral cell angiomas, formerly considered benign, are now being individually investigated due to recent research indicating their potential malignancy [4].

Splenic lesions are frequently observed and frequently occur by chance. Hemangioma, hematoma, lymphangioma, extra- medullary hematopoiesis (EMH), and sclerosing angiomatoid nodular transformation (SANT) are all examples of benign splenic vascular neoplasms [13]. Among the uncommon splenic entities are focal EMH, focal myeloma, angiomyolipoma, and SANT. The most prevalent malignant non-hematolymphoid malignancy of the spleen is primary spleen angiosarcoma. Other malignant conditions that affect the spleen include lymphoma, myeloma, and metastases. We’ll discuss on the clinical manifestation, important imaging results, and correlations of benign, neoplastic, and malignant conditions that might affect the spleen [14].

T. Langerhans initially described spleen angiosarcoma in 1879. The variability of clinical symptoms and diagnostic values related to splenic angiosarcoma is considerable. However, a significant proportion of the patients (75%) have stomach pain, while approximately 25% to 33% exhibit rupture of the affected organ [15,16].

Angiosarcomas are high-grade vascular tumors associated with poor prognosis due to their aggressive nature [17,18]. Because they tend to be aggressive, angiosarcomas are high-grade vascular tumors with a bad prognosis. A timely splenectomy and cytotoxic chemotherapy after an early diagnosis may be useful treatment options, according to anecdotal findings.

Splenomegaly was observed in 85% of patients during macroscopic examination. Distinct lesions were observed in 88% of patients upon sectioning, exhibiting a range of characteristics including well-defined solid nodules as well as poorly characterized areas of necrosis and bleeding related to cystic spaces. The tumors exhibited heterogeneity at a microscopic level, although all instances exhibited a focal vasoformative component that was bordered by atypical endothelial cells. The study revealed the presence of solid sarcomatous, papillary, and epithelioid development patterns. In two cases, the component of the solid sarcomata had similarities to fibrosarcoma, whereas in one case, it displayed similarities to malignant fibrous histiocytoma. Frequent observations included hemorrhage, necrosis, hemosiderin, extramedullary hematopoiesis, and intracytoplasmic hyaline globules.

The findings from a series of immunohistochemical experiments indicated that a significant proportion of tumors had immunoreactivity for a minimum of two markers associated with vascular differentiation (CD34, FVIIIRAg, VEGFR3, and CD31), as well as at least one marker indicative of histiocytic differentiation (CD68 and/or lysozyme) [19]. In all cases, metastases occurred at some point throughout the disease’s course [20-22]. After the last follow-up, only two patients remained alive, one with disease after 8 years and the other without disease at 10 years. Of the 26 patients, 26 died of their condition despite rigorous therapy. [23]. In summary, primary spleen angiosarcoma is a highly aggressive tumor that, in nearly all cases, results in mortality [24]. According to immunohistochemistry study, most of the spleen angiosarcomas co-express histiocytic and endothelial markers, indicating that some tumors may arise from spleen lining cells [25].

The diagnosis was based on histopathological results. Microscopically, the tumors were heterogenous; hemosiderin, hemorrhage, necrosis, and extramedullary hematopoiesis were frequently identified [26]. Differentiating benign vascular tumors from malignancies with modest atypia was typically challenging. The ability of tumors to generate blood vessels was frequently impaired in cases of severe atypia [27]. Only instances with moderate or severe cytology abnormal exhibited the presence of peculiar tumor giant cells. The immunohistochemical analysis demonstrated that tumor cells exhibited immunoreactivity for markers associated with vascular differentiation, including CD34, FVIIIRAg, and CD31. Additionally, vimentin was found to be commonly positive, while S-100 protein and cytokeratin were generally observed to be negative. Abnormal laboratory findings included anemia, leukocytosis, and thrombocytopenia. Moderate to severe anemia and thrombocytopenia would indicate bone metastasis on most occasions. Many tumor markers, including AFP, CEA, CA-125, and CA19-9, were either slightly increased or within normal ranges. Radiologists should take note of an enlarged spleen that shows low attenuation on computed tomography, as well as a single or numerous heterogeneous nodular masses in the liver.

Imaging Manifestations

The imaging results showed an enlarged spleen with lobules, as well as heterogeneous nodules that had significant and uneven enhancement following contrast injection and spontaneously hyper dense regions [28]. Bone lesions with visible veins and arteries were present, in addition to metastases to the liver and lungs [29,30]. Lymphoma and metastases often exhibit hypo-enhancing lesions compared to the surrounding tissue [4]. The CT and MR imaging results indicated that the lesions had a hemorrhagic character and contained higher levels of iron [31].

Treatment Options

Early clinical symptoms for spleen primary malignancy are not typical [13]. Most patients were diagnosed at an advanced stage and had poor prognosis. Considering the treatment options, timely identification and immediate removal of the spleen before it ruptures and peritoneal dissemination is crucial for long-term survival, so early detection is a hot topic for angiosarcoma [5]. There have been controversies on the use of chemotherapy and radiotherapy in primary spleen angiosarcoma. Adjuvant cytotoxic chemotherapy can be effective treatment options for multiple metastases that cannot be excised. Kamocki [15] reported a 57-year-old woman with spleen angiosarcoma and liver metastasis received 8 rounds of weekly-based paclitaxel before undergoing metastatic liver resection; this was followed by a pathological full response. But overdose chemotherapy may impair immune function and acerate progression of tumors, in our 52 cases, there were four patients survived more than 9 years, none of them received chemotherapy or radiotherapy. This might e ascribed to complete resection of tumor. Radiotherapy is helpful for doubtful regional resection; radiation on bone metastasis is helpful for the relieving pain.

We reported a case of a 46-year-old female patient who had liver metastases and primary splenic angiosarcoma (PSA); she died soon 35 days following surgery. Clinicians can obtain a thorough review from this case report, the systematic review, and the in-depth analysis of 52 instances. When the patient exhibits symptoms such as upper abdomen pain and abnormalities in the blood cell count (such as anemia, leukocytosis, thrombocytopenia, and/or high erythrocyte sedimentation rate), it is advisable to consider the possibility of PSA. Furthermore, imaging evaluation is crucial for the timely detection of PSA.

Availability of Data and Materials

The data generated in the present study may be requested from the corresponding author through 109274952@qq.com

Authors’ Contributions

Conception and design were performed by Rui Wang. Data analysis and interpretation were performed by Yuan Fang and Jingqiu Zhang. Manuscript writing was performed by Rui Wang and revised by Jingqiu Zhang. Final approval of manuscript was performed by all authors who read and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgement

None

Grant Support

Rui Wang is founded by China Scholarship Council (202206920039). This research was supported by funds from Natural Science Foundation of Suqian Science and Technology Bureau (K201903, Z2018076, Z2018213 and Z2022065). Jiangsu Association for Science and Technology (JSTJ-2022-004).

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

The patient reported in this study was told for the purpose and process of this study and had written informed consent according to the guidelines of the hospital’s human associated research.

Patient Consent for Publication

Not applicable.

Competing Interests

The authors indicated no potential conflicts of interest.

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The Role of Women’s Participation in a Solar Energy-Agriculture-Gender Equality Nexus towards Mitigating Poverty among Farmers in India

1 Reply

DOI: 10.31038/AWHC.2024714

Abstract

Energy transition should encompass social and economic decision along with achievement of sustainable development goals (SDGs). In developing countries like India, impoverished sectors like agriculture, suffer from economic and gender disparities which make the achievement of climate action a strenuous activity. This paper proposes a solar-agriculture-gender framework nexus that is capable of poverty mitigation (SDG 1), gender inequality mitigation (SDG 5), affordable and clean energy introduction in agriculture (SDG 7), economic and food quality improvement (SDG 9) and climate change mitigation (SDG 13). By introducing solar power into the agricultural mix for irrigation in the fallow lands of poverty-ridden minority communities, a set of life-cycle assessment tools are introduced in this framework package that can guide a sustainable energy transition in the agricultural sector of developing countries.

Keywords

Sustainable agriculture, Gender equality, Poverty, Farmers empowerment, grivoltaics, Food production

Introduction

While net-zero targets are the center of energy policy in recent years, transition from fossil fuels (FF) to renewable energy (RE) is a very gradual process, specifically for developing nations. It is estimated that it will take more than 15 years for China to produce 50% of its power from “green” sources, while it is more than 20 years for India . On the other hand, several developed countries and states have already reached more than 50% non-FF electricity generation, such as Norway, France, California, New Zealand, Denmark, etc. In order to accelerate energy transition and meet net-zero targets, participation of all sectors and all demographics is imperative. This is tantamount for a country like India, which despite being a very fast-growing economy, suffers from a large portion of the population being below poverty line (BPL) and a substantial lack of women’s participation in the workforce. It is the backward classes of the economic spectrum that are employed in the primary sector of the economy, which happens to be the most emission intensive sectors across all developing countries. In these sectors, decision-making has been homogeneous and hierarchical, specifically in methods of operation (that includes energy-use). Thus, not only does the social aspect of energy transition involve socioeconomics, it also involves equity, justice and inclusion as part of the energy-society nexus [1-11].

India is the fastest-growing emerging economy [5], which is also the third highest global CO2 emitter [12], owing to heavy dependency on FF (especially coal) in the power and primary sectors. Agriculture accounts for more than 50% of the entire workforce in India, while contributing under 20% of the total gross domestic product (GDP) of India [13]. This is a major issue since agriculture also accounts for 10% of the total CO2 emissions, while consuming only 7% of the total primary energy supply (TPES). This makes agriculture the second most emission intensive sector of India, behind power generation [8,14]. This is coupled with the fact that only 55% of Indian agricultural energy consumption was electrified in 2019, compared to 38% in 1990 [4], showing the prevalence of FF in the sector. All these data are from 2019, and shown in Figure 1. The second issue of the per capita GDP being tremendously low for agriculture, is that most of the farmers are poverty-ridden. While India’s BPL population has reduced from 46% in 1993 to 25% in 2020, more than 80% of the BPL households primarily earn their living from agriculture. Additionally, Figure 2 shows that the slope of increase of the rural population is much higher than that of the number of farms, implying that per capita productivity has also reduced over the years [9,13,15,16]. Table 1 shows the calculation for monthly income and expenditure by decile for the rural agricultural population of India, where it can be seen that several households up to the 8th decile are all in negative income zones. The third issue has been highlighted by multiple previous studies, which is a direct consequence of the persisting poverty in Indian agriculture. Mechanization of agriculture has been quite under-developed in India, due to the purchasing power of farmers being sub par, and even insufficient funds to buy fuel for tractors, pumps, etc. [17-19]. Moreover, rural-farm electrification is below 60%, specifically poverty-ridden areas facing issues with access to electricity [20]. As a result, policy mechanisms, such as subsidy on agricultural fuel exist in many states of India, such as Haryana and Maharashtra [13,18], which indirectly drives the cost of fuel higher in the transportation and service sectors. This also decreases the public enterprises’ earning from fuel taxes, affecting the value of oil trade. The resultant decreased trade creates a ‘death spiral’ that increases the inflation in agriculture and transport sectors, which decreases real-GDP compared to inflated GDP [21,22].

fig 1

Figure 1: Energy source shares in Agricultural sector in India [14]

fig 2

Figure 2: Number of farms vs rural population increase in India

Table 1: Decile-wise Income-Expenditure reporting for farmers owning less than 1 hectare of land [9]

Decile Class

 Total Income (Rs.) Monthly Total Exp. (Rs.) Monthly Income – Exp MPCE (Rs.)
Family 4 Family 5

Family 6

1

3870

 3537 333 884.25 707.4 589.5
2 4263 4337 -74 1084.25 867.4

722.8333

3

 4697 4708 -11 1177 941.6 784.6667
4 4739 4933 -194 1233.25 986.6

822.1667

5

 5471 5358 113 1339.5 1071.6 893
6 5830 5515 315 1378.75 1103

919.1667

7

 5703 5896 -193 1474 1179.2 982.6667
8 6122 6385 -263 1596.25 1277

1064.167

9

 7430 7169 261 1792.25 1433.8 1194.833
10 12458 11107 1351 2776.75 2221.4

1851.167

In addition to the economic concerns, a critical social issue prevents the escape from poverty in Indian agriculture, which is the disparity in gender participation in the sector [11]. Notwithstanding that women in rural societies are more inclined towards family-roles, such as child-rearing, the issue is pronounced when women decide to participate in the agricultural process. The author of, highlighted that wages are consistently low for female farmers occupied in growing rice, the staple food crop for a majority of India, and especially pronounced when there is a shortfall in rainfall and irrigation water supply. Studies have also analyzed that the labor market is immature, which leads to further reduction of female labor’s wages much more than male labor wages [8,23]. This is coupled by the fact that landowners are completely dependent on productivity, which is erratic due to a lower penetration of electricity for farming. The disparity in access to clean and modern energy by farmers extends to the gender disparity issue as well, as the authors of pointed out that access to clean cooking fuel is more diminished for poverty-ridden women-run households than that of men-run households in rural India. Finally, the access to education in farming communities in rural India is also negatively skewed for women, as pointed out by multiple reports [9,11,16]. It is therefore, imperative to analyze these economic and socioeconomic issues from the lens of renewable energy and agricultural productivity in rural India.

The central idea of this study is to build a framework that throws light on a new energy-society nexus in India, namely, solar-agriculture-gender (SAG) nexus. The objective of this paper is to build a policy regime that utilizes the integration of solar energy into the agricultural energy mix of rural India, targeted at emission intensity reduction of farming processes and mitigation of poverty and disparity against women involved in the sector. While several previous studies have highlighted how RE integration can improve not only the energy profile of farming processes, it can also boost agricultural productivity [24]. On the other hand, RE and the involvement of women have been an active area of energy policy research and socioeconomic development [25-28]. However, most existing studies isolate the issue of gender equality in energy transition and focus centrally on the involvement of women in decision-making in the energy sectors. Moreover, most of these studies are directed at the sectors which are demographically urban and mainly limited to the power sectors. The novelty of the framework presented in this paper is that it targets at a specific sector (Indian agriculture), which is gender-inequal as a result of poverty and inaccessibility to education. This paper opens up the possibility to utilize RE integration as a tool for poverty eradication and gender disparity mitigation in poverty-ridden sectors [25-27].

Solar-Agriculture-Gender (SAG) Nexus Framework

SAG framework will be defined in this section, with its components as a policy package for the Indian agriculture sector. The most appealing characteristic of this framework is from the perspective of sustainable development goals (SDGs), as it forms a feedback loop between SDG 1 (no poverty), SDG 5 (promoting gender equality), SDG 7 (clean and affordable energy), SDG 8 (decent work and economic growth) and SDG 13 (mitigating climate change). Figure 3 shows the schematic flow of the SDG policy implementation under the SAG nexus.

fig 3

Figure 3: SDG interactions resulting from the proposed SAG framework

The first action of introducing solar plants (solar photovoltaic technology- SPV) into the agricultural mix is in line with SDG 7, which is targeted at meeting the Paris Agreement targets of India, and also towards net-zero targets (SDG 13). In addition, the policy framework can be mutated to be completely owned by the farmers, instead of centralized SPV plants. While decentralization will require a lot of awareness programs to be launched and is time-consuming from a policy implementation standpoint, it will directly be affecting SDG 1. Poverty eradication is completely looked at from increasing the earning of a farmer through two channels: (a) increasing the productivity of existing crops by providing a stable supply of groundwater irrigation, and (b) enabling the farmers to sell off the excess electricity to distributor companies (DISCOM). When agricultural productivity increases due to stable irrigation, it creates a higher economic growth for the farmers’ communities and also increases the value of the food being produced (SDG 8). SDG 8 is also achieved when participation of women increases due to the opportunity of maintaining SPV plants creates additional jobs. In fact, women-owned farms can benefit largely from this, since excess electricity sold will be determined by feed-in-tariff (FiT) mechanisms, bypassing existing problems of produce-related income shortage. This creates a feedback loop towards gender-equal labour-force participation and equal wages for women in poverty-ridden societies (SDG 5) with SDG 1 and SDG 7 achievements. Figure 4 shows the policy framework that will enable the SDG achievements of Figure 3 [29,30].

fig 4

Figure 4: The Solar-Agriculture-Gender (SAG) policy framework for sustainable and gender-equal agriculture in India.

Economic Planning Subsection

Within this part of the framework, the ramifications of the microeconomics are considered for integrating SPV power within the agricultural mix. Firstly, a community of minority-dominated farmers have to be selected in India, who mainly are concentrated in the states of Bihar and Chhattisgarh. For the test case, the community size should be between 100 and 200 persons in a rural setting. With the absence of disposable income for such farmers, it will be impossible for them to procure the SPV equipment and necessary grid interconnections. This is where subsidy-shifting mechanisms should be employed by local village governments, as they remove the subsidy on oil and equivalently apply it to the interest rates of loans on SPV-related expenditure. Several policy mechanisms like ‘PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana’ are in action for rooftop solar schemes, which offer subsidized rooftop SPV equipment. If solar pumps can be subsidized similarly, it will incur no additional cost for the government due to removal of subsidy on oil. Feed-in-Tariffs can be fixed by banks to recover the principal and subsidized investment on SPV, which can be funded by the farmer community’s excess electricity production earning [31,32].

Secondly, it might be thought that rainfed areas are better for SAG framework installation, due to higher incidence of natural irrigation. However, the cloud cover will make SPV power production unpredictable, leading to very low FiTs for the farmers, which will defeat the purpose of the SAG nexus. Thus, rain-shadow areas are paradoxically more suitable for SPV integration into agriculture, because of two reasons: to get a higher FiT on the installed solar and SPV integration would streamline the availability of water in drought-prone areas [33,34].

Thirdly, any regional or specific crop cannot be selected for the framework. Cash crops and specific regional food crops depend not only on the soil quality, but also on the type of soil. Such soils are mostly unsuitable for any shared purpose of land, wherein previous studies have shown that integration of solar into agriculture would actually decrease the productivity of such special crops. Rice and wheat are the two staple crops of India, but wheat requires a much drier climate than rice, making wheat limited to the northern and north-western part of India. Rice is grown in more than 70% of India’s agricultural land, making it the ideal candidate for solar and agriculture integration. Moreover, due to the abundant supply of rice, it is often the minority group population that grow rice are the poorest among all farmers of India [35,36].

Agriculture and SPV (Adapted Agrivoltaics)

Agrivoltaic systems have been analyzed in a plethora of existing studies, where co-location of agricultural activity and power production benefits both the systems explored how land-use can be optimized by usage of different densities of photo-voltaic panels on farms primarily considering shading effect on the crops as well. The study specifically analyzes a full density installation and a half-density installation of solar panels in a field, and by virtue of a factor called Land-Equivalent-Ratio, wherein the productivity of land was greater in both configurations. This can be attributed to the fact that irrigation becomes streamlined by the integration of SPV. Figure 5 shows the configurations of SPV and agriculture co-location arrangements [37].

fig 5

Figure 5: Co-locating SPV and crops on the same owned land in two configurations: (left) separate land with standard-mounted SPV, (right) high-mounted SPV in-between crops.

In the high-mounted SPV shading effect of the solar panels are optimized against the growth of the plants. This configuration not only requires a higher knowledge of crops’ growth trajectories, but involves a higher SPV system cost due to expensive mounting structures and more expensive maintenance cost [37,38]. Due to the target demographic being poverty-ridden and not sufficiently aware of SPV maintenance, separate-land, standard-mounted SPV and crops co-location is recommended. This is also coupled with the fact that minority-owned agricultural land has quite a lot of fallow land [13]. Thus, the SPV system could utilize the fallow land, where no crops are grown in any case. In such a case, the fallow land-based solar powered irrigation can provide a much higher economic performance per unit area of land, compared to diesel pumps utilizing the existing land area of crops [39]. This could create opportunities for increasing the productivity of the owned land, thereby increasing the value of land in women-owned communities.

Water and Food Nexus

The first achievement of this framework is from the perspective of food security and water conservation nexus. Existing studies have already proven that Agrivoltaic systems can not only increase the efficiency of land-use, but also the utilization of water [40] showed how specifically water-use can be made efficient by usage of solar panels and planting a low-water-consuming crop like Aloe Vera together in drylands. While rice is a water-intensive crop, separated land can easily be optimized by land-use engineering, where fallow land-based SPV panels can be located at a higher elevation. The run-off water from washing of the panels can trickle down to the rice fields, making dual use of the water, increasing efficiency. This was proven by the researchers of, who showed that the food-water-energy nexus is benefitted in arid areas by agrivoltaics [40,41].

An entirely new methodology for assessment of Agrivoltaic technology was investigated by Leon and Ishihara [42]. In their paper, they assessed the life-cycle CO2 emissions of a greenhouse, used for tomato cultivation, padded with solar cells at optimum angles. They created new functional units called modified-area based and monetary-based units to assess the emissions from a collocated system. To gauge the potential of increased water and food security of the SAG framework, newer functional units are proposed that would ensure an empirical outlook of the nexus achievements. Table 2 shows the functional units for gauging the viability of the framework to deliver policy outcomes. All such functional units will be based on the life-cycle assessment of the proposed system.

Table 2: Functional units for LCA analysis of the SAG framework for empirical representation of SDG achievements

SDG Targets

 LCA Nomenclature

Functional Unit Definition
SDG 8 Land area productivity Total revenue per unit area of land
Water productivity Total revenue per litre water-use
Monetary efficiency Total revenue per unit cost input
SDG 13 Food production emission intensity Total CO2 emission per kg of crops produced
Income emission intensity Total CO2 emission per unit revenue
Energy emission intensity Total CO2 emission per unit energy consumed and sold
SDG 1 and SDG 5 Poverty index Total income increased per capita of poverty-ridden population
Gender index Total women’s income increased per capita of female population
Poverty emission index Total CO2 emission per capita of poverty-ridden population
Gender emission index Total CO2 emission per capita of female population

Note: All of these LCA assessments are to be done in two scenarios: Business-as-usual without integrating SPV and SPV-integrated SAG nexus.

Poverty Mitigation and Gender-Equality Achievement

The central focus of the SAG framework implementation is improving the condition of poverty-ridden farmers and eliminating economic disparity against women in such poverty-ridden communities. Assuming that the SPV integration in the community of the farmers do not involve any exogenous addition of labour, more workers will be required for maintenance of SPV-powered irrigation pumps compared to diesel pumps. Moreover, with increased productivity due to timely availability of irrigation water from the SPV-powered pumps, the surplus crops will also need additional labour to manage. This is exactly where women can be involved in the process. For communities that are preexisting dominated by women farmers, extra unemployed workers from the same community should be assumed to be involved.

While there have been literature that have addressed inclusion of women in academic and technical planning for energy transition, and from the perspective of leadership, specifically in the roles of energy justice and democracy [25,27], there are very few studies that have analyzed how discrimination of poverty-ridden women can be eliminated by their inclusion in energy transition programs. Several key bibliometric reviews point out the leadership-building initiatives for inclusion of women in rural India’s energy transition spectrum, all concluding that class and caste discrimination are considerable hurdles that need to be overcome for removing gender disparities [26,43]. Ethnographic methods in literature have also explored how women’s and men’s participation at household levels can be streamlined [44]. However, while addressing the justice issue, no existing literature has provided a framework that can uplift caste and gender issues by the specific integration of RE towards a sustainable energy transition. This is where the SAG framework addresses these deficiencies by quantifying how gender disparities can be removed while simultaneously improving the economic situation by SPV integration.

From Table 2, the poverty and gender indices are measures to assess how much income increases within the entire SAG nexus per capita. The increased income results not only from the selling of excess electricity from the grid-connected SPV, but also from the saving on oil expenditure by the farmers’ community despite the oil being subsidized. Moreover, increased productivity is estimated to also add to the income, thereby providing a comprehensive nexus performance. These indicators empirically address one of the key questions by the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) on the gender perspective of renewable energy. The other two indices, poverty emission and gender emission, gives the outcome as to how sustainably the income increase happens in the SAG framework as compared to business-as-usual agricultural approach, which answers the sustainability challenge of the Asian Development Bank for gender equality achievement [45,46].

Fossil Fuel Reduction and Climate Action

The SAG nexus is designed to be an effective and inclusive policy framework that enables the achievement of net-zero targets at the lower end of the social strata. Existing agrivoltaic research has already indicated that from the perspective of an individual agricultural holding, solar-powered pumping has a much higher social and economic performance than fossil fuel-powered pumps [39]. There have been other researchers who have focused on concentrated solar power, where it was found that it had higher energy efficiency, lower heat loss and a markedly high economic viability than a traditional system employing electricity, kerosene and diesel. Along with climate benefits, the payback time for concentrated solar and SPV is quite less compared to a diesel pump, while the operational cost is much lesser for the solar plants [47,48].

From Table 2, three separate climate action benefits can be empirically determined by the SAG framework. Firstly, the food production emission intensity is vastly reduced by solar integration because of the irrigation being completely power by a non-emitting source. Apart from irrigation systems, there are multiple other farm applications of solar electricity such as, solar cooling and heating in greenhouses. Alleviation of poverty and increased income has always been associated with a higher emission intensity of increased wages. Traditional economic models have always indicated that wages are increased at the cost of the environment. The second indicator under SDG 13 in Table 2, has the potential to prove this theory wrong, and show that RE integration into poverty-ridden and minority-dominated communities has the potential to mitigate poverty and promote gender equality sustainably [49,50].

Finally, while many sectors of India have entered a decoupling phase of energy-use and production, agriculture has always suffered from not achieving decoupling at the energy source . As a result, the third indicator in Table 2 under SDG 13, will show that reduced FF-use in agricultural processes can effectively push Indian agriculture towards decoupling [2].

Conclusion

This paper proposes a framework called the Solar-Agriculture-Gender (SAG) framework that has the potential to solve three key issues in the Indian agricultural sector: poverty and gender inequality among farmers, stable food production and high emission intensity of food production. This is achieved by integrating solar power into the agricultural mix for the primary purpose of irrigation and replacing existing diesel-powered pumps. Such agrivoltaic systems will be implemented in communities of poverty-ridden and minority farmers and specifically gauge the acceptance of new and renewable energy in such communities. Through a series of life-cycle assessment indicators, the framework is expected to reveal the socio-economic and environmental achievements of this framework, to ensure that it can be readily accepted as a policy direction by existing governments or as a project by large corporations.

At the heart the central policy that the SAG framework targets is the subsidy on agricultural oil-use given by governments, which is essentially a death spiral economic policy, that not only makes agricultural markets non-competitive, but also leads to a stagnation in the awareness and wages of farmers. The incentive is expected to be firstly created with the government, wherein the subsidized oil can be given to other sectors for a higher price. At this moment, the list of indicators of this SAG framework will be the incentive for financial institutions or corporations to loan the capital for a reduced interest rate to the poverty-ridden community of farmers. Only upon the installation of solar power, and that results in higher gains, can farmers and specifically women farmers realize that higher production of food and excess electricity sold adds to their income. Thus, the incentive does not come from the farmer because of their lack of awareness of solar systems and their economic potential. This reverse incentive idea is where the SAG framework provides an effective tool for the implementation of this nexus that can result in the simultaneous achievement of 5 SDGs.

A lot of future research needs to be conducted based on the premise of this paper. The first recommendation is to conduct a ground-level data collection and selection of impoverished communities, based on which actual empirical data can be simulated. The second direction is to simulate such data at a market-level to uncover the macroeconomic potential of this type of framework, such that it can be readily adopted by policy makers.

Competing Interest

The author declares no financial or non-financial interests that are directly or indirectly related to the work.

Funding

This work was not funded by any agency.

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Emerging Work Challenges for Working Women in the Digital Era: An Examination of Work Connectivity Behavior After-Hour

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DOI: 10.31038/AWHC.2024713

Abstract

In the context of hyperconnected work environments, fueled by advancements in information and communication technologies (ICT), this research proposal underscores the significance of examining women’s work connectivity behaviors outside regular working hours. It posits that although the “hyperconnected” work pattern affects all employees, women encounter unique challenges owing to their family obligations. The proposal puts forth several research inquiries, probing the relationship between technological progress, career advancement, physical and mental well-being, work-family balance, specific industry patterns and women’s after-hours work connectivity. This investigation aspires to offer insights into workplace gender disparities, ultimately fostering equality and diversity.

Keywords

Working woman, Hyperconnected work pattern, Career advancement, Physical and psychological well-being, Work-family balance

Our recent study, titled “Navigating work-family conflict, entrepreneurial passion, and entrepreneurial exit intention during the COVID-19 pandemic in Shanghai,”offers a new viewpoint on the interplay between role conflict, work psychology, and the work effectiveness of entrepreneurs within the pandemic setting. Drawing upon the Conservation of Resources (COR) theory, our investigation explores entrepreneurs’ work-family conflict, entrepreneurial passion, entrepreneurial exit intention, and external relationship embedding within the context of the pandemic, considering both resource loss and replenishment perspectives. Our findings illuminate how these elements mutually influence each other and significantly impact entrepreneurs’ attitudes towards entrepreneurship and the overall performance of their organizations. This research not only lends new theoretical support to entrepreneurial management but also offers valuable insights and recommendations for entrepreneurial practice. In today’s fast-paced and high-pressure work environments, achieving a work-life balance, enhancing work efficiency, and boosting employee satisfaction have emerged as critical challenges for organizations. Through rigorous scientific analysis, our study provides compelling answers to address these challenges [1].

In our studied group of entrepreneurs, there exists a certain imbalance in the gender ratio between men and women. The deliberation on the effects of gender disparities on work-family conflict, emotional exhaustion, and work engagement remains marginally inadequate. In contemporary society, women’s significance in the workplace is escalating, and the obstacles and opportunities they encounter are progressively more evident. Hence, deeper exploration into the novel work stresses and obstacles confronted by working women within the modern digital work environment will facilitate a more comprehensive comprehension of workplace dynamics, ultimately fostering gender equality and female empowerment. Consequently, we propose that future investigations concentrate on women’s work conduct within the realm of digital work, particularly their work connectivity behaviors beyond regular working hours [2].

In the wake of advancing information and communication technology (ICT) and the widespread adoption of electronic communication devices in the workplace, modern organizations have transformed into “hyperconnected” environments. This shift has effectively erased traditional organizational boundaries, significantly altering employees’ conventional working patterns. As a result, employees now routinely use portable communication devices to engage in work activities or maintain continuous contact with work-related individuals anytime and anywhere, even during non-working hours (e.g., before work, lunch breaks, and after-work hours). The behavior of maintaining work connectivity after regular work hours, through the use of portable communication devices, has been termed “work connectivity behavior after-hours”. Current research underscores the impact of this “unlimited link” working pattern on various aspects of employees’ lives, including their health, cognition, behavior, and family life often leading to negative consequences. The effect of work connectivity behavior after-hours, as summarized by us based on existing research, is depicted in Figure 1 [3-10].

FIG 1

Figure 1: The effect of work connectivity behavior after-hours

However, the majority of existing research predominantly focuses on the general employee population, neglecting the specific challenges faced by women in the workplace. Women constitute a pivotal force in the progression of contemporary organizations, significantly contributing to enhancing team diversity and fostering innovation. Nonetheless, they often encounter additional pressures stemming from family responsibilities, particularly in maintaining a work-family balance. Certain studies have indicated that, in comparison to their male counterparts, female employees tend to have a weaker sense of boundary between work and personal life, and less awareness of family-work separation. Consequently, work connectivity behavior during non-working hours may exert a profounder influence on women in the workplace, an aspect that has received scant attention in research. Hence, we urge future scholars to devote more consideration to the ramifications of work connectivity behavior during non-working hours specifically for working women. Centering on this theme, we propose the following topics for deeper exploration in future research endeavors [11-14]:

  • How does technological advancement influence women’s work connectivity behavior during non-work hours? With the emergence of remote working capabilities and advancements in mobile communication technology, the work connectivity patterns of women outside their regular work hours have undergone transformation. Further research is warranted to investigate how these novel technologies are reshaping their work habits and the subsequent implications for their professional and personal lives.
  • What are the distinct effects of working women’s work connectivity behavior during non-work hours on their career advancement? This inquiry aims to ascertain whether maintaining work connectivity outside office hours differentially impacts the rate of career progression and job satisfaction for working women compared to their male counterparts.
  • How does engagement in work-related connectivity after work hours impact the physical and mental well-being of working women? Studies could delve into whether the engagement of working women in work-related tasks during non-work hours specifically affects their physical and psychological health. Potential areas of investigation include elevated stress levels, deteriorated sleep quality, and whether these effects are tied to societal expectations and gender roles.
  • How do working women manage the balance between maintaining work connectivity and their family life during off-hours? This line of inquiry centers on the strategies employed by working women to preserve harmony within their family life, specifically their spousal and parental relationships, while simultaneously maintaining necessary work connections.
  • Are there discernible differences in the after-work connectivity behaviors of women across various industries? Comparative research could explore the differences in work connectivity patterns among women in distinct industries such as finance, education, and healthcare, analyzing how industry-specific characteristics and work environments shape these behaviors.
  • Do job connectivity behaviors, characterized by different attributes (e.g., voluntary vs. involuntary), differentially impact working women? This study aims to uncover the potential benefits of workplace connectivity for female employees, particularly exploring whether voluntary engagement in work-related tasks outside work hours positively affects them.
  • What are the roles of varying organizational environments, individual personality traits, work capabilities, and organizational technology in shaping the impact of after-work connectivity on women’s overall work experience? Which elements mitigate the potentially negative effects of work connectivity, and which ones exacerbate them? The objective of this research inquiry is to investigate the moderating factors influencing the effect of work-related connectivity behaviors outside of official working hours specifically on female employees.
  • What effective strategies can female employees adopt to counteract the potential downsides of work connectivity, such as job crafting or seeking out new job resources? By examining coping strategies, we aim to assist female workers in effectively managing the negative impacts of work connectivity behaviors on their work performance, personal life, and overall health.

    • The research proposal into women’s work connectivity behavior beyond regular working hours bears significant theoretical contributions. Such behavior obscures the distinction between professional and personal life. For women in the workforce, striking a harmonious balance between family responsibilities and career aspirations remains a pivotal concern. Examining this behavior sheds light on the evolving nature of work-life balance, bolstering empirical support for associated theories. Furthermore, exploring the work connectivity patterns of employed women during their off-hours can provide organizations with valuable insights for tailored management strategies. Specifically, this analysis aids in determining effective allocation of work tasks, thereby minimizing the necessity for after-hours connectivity. It also suggests ways to furnish supportive resources that empower women in the workplace to manage their work-life boundaries more efficiently. Ultimately, given the heightened challenges and pressures encountered by working women in balancing their family and career, studying their work connectivity practices beyond regular hours aids in uncovering gender disparities in the workplace and advances research promoting gender equality and workplace diversity.

    References

    1. Wang J, Zhao Y (2024) Navigating work-family conflict, entrepreneurial passion, entrepreneurial exit intention amidst the COVID-19 pandemic in Shanghai. Journal of General Management.
    2. Gambles R, Lewis S, Rapoport R (2006) The myth of work-life balance: The challenge of our time for men, women and societies. John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
    3. Cascio WF, Montealegre R (2016) How technology is changing work and organizations. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior 3: 349-375.
    4. Richardson K, Benbunan-Fich R (2011) Examining the antecedents of work connectivity behavior during non-work time. Information and Organization 21: 142-160.
    5. Arlinghaus A, Nachreiner F (2013) When work calls—Associations between being contacted outside of regular working hours for work-related matters and health. Chronobiology International 30(9). [crossref]
    6. Lanaj K, Johnson RE, Barnes CM (2014) Beginning the workday yet already depleted? Consequences of late-night smartphone use and sleep. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 124: 11-23.
    7. Fonner KL, Roloff ME (2012) Testing the connectivity paradox: Linking teleworkers’ communication media use to social presence, stress from interruptions, and organizational identification. Communication Monographs 79: 205-231.
    8. Richardson KM, Thompson CA (2012) High tech tethers and work-family conflict: A conservation of resources approach.
    9. Diaz I, Chiaburu DS, Zimmerman RD, Boswell WR (2012) Communication technology: Pros and cons of constant connection to work. Journal of Vocational Behavior 80: 500-508.
    10. Olson-Buchanan JB, Boswell WR (2006) Blurring boundaries: Correlates of integration and segmentation between work and nonwork. Journal of Vocational Behavior 68: 432-445.
    11. Dobbin F, Kim S, Kalev A (2011) You can’t always get what you need: Organizational determinants of diversity programs. American Sociological Review 76: 386-411.
    12. Mannix E, Neale MA (2005) What differences make a difference? The promise and reality of diverse teams in organizations. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 6: 31-55.
    13. Gaio Santos G, Cabral-Cardoso C (2008) Work-family culture in academia: A gendered view of work-family conflict and coping strategies. Gender in Management: An International Journal 23: 442-457.
    14. Shockley KM, Shen W, DeNunzio MM, Arvan ML, Knudsen EA (2017) Disentangling the relationship between gender and work-family conflict: An integration of theoretical perspectives using meta-analytic methods. Journal of Applied Psychology 102: 1601. [crossref]

Human Suicide, Management Landscape

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DOI: 10.31038/PSYJ.2024633

Abstract

Suicide is still a biologically mystery process with a high rate of human mortality. External and internal stresses may drive human suicide behavior. Clinical suicide prevention and treatment are ever-growing. Bridging the gap between molecular basis and psychiatric intervene has great medical or pharmaceutical importance. Final medical success (molecular targeting and curative therapies) in the clinic will ensure high-quality pharmaceutical utility in the clinic.

Keywords

Human suicide, Neurobiology, Modern technology, Suicide prediction

Introduction

Global suicide death is huge (outnumber the death of war and homicide) [1]. Approximately 2% of human mortality is accounted among all episodes of suicide behaviors [2]. However, the incidence of suicide-induced death (SID) is not average distributed. These kinds of epidemic information and stress should be analyzed. General picture of biomedical study of suicide pathogenesis and intervention is depicted in early [3-8]. It contains different strategies and methods. Guideline for new diagnosis, technology and therapeutic selection can be updated.

Medical Causalities

Early clinical evidence suggests that external and internal risk factors or stresses may drive human neuropsychiatric consequences and suicide behavior. However, an accumulated data suggests that human suicide behavior is not an absolutely impulsive act or behaviors. It is possibly a disease-related. After two decades of hard work, association began to emerge between suicide behaviors and different types of human mental diseases [9-13]. To attain a goal of high-quality suicide management, external stresses, pathogenesis cascade and therapeutic targets should be targeted.

Patho-therapeutic Mechanisms

Currently suicide ideation is a common feature of all human population. As a result, this public health burden needs to be overcome as early as possible. Since human mental health problems show many identical signs in suicide patients, molecular mechanisms between different psychiatric diseases and suicide ideations should be promoted [14-18].

Different types of management strategies in the clinic are listed as:

  • Education for students, teachers or clinicians [19]
  • Stress response mechanisms
  • Diathesis and prevention
  • Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
  • Restriction for lethal means
  • Anti-psychiatric agents
  • Drug treatments
  • Traditional medicine (herbs) [20]
  • Treatment of co-morbid [21]
  • High-quality nursery [22,23]

Currently, the widest used drugs for suicide are ketamine, lithium and clozapine [14]. The effect of ketamine is acute and short. It commonly treats patients in suicide ideation. Its treatment is commonly through injections and responses are quick. Since most psychiatric diseases are chronic diseases, curable therapeutics against mental disorders is still a medical dream. It also affects the high-quality of suicide prediction and prevention [24-30].

Future Direction

According to law of traditional Chine medicine (TCM), human illness is caused by emotional instability and angry. The hidden molecular aberrant in human is not enough to create a disease or suicide behaviors. In context of Chinese medical book, there are recorded of “disease is caused by psychiatric health problems”, “angry will be a major risk factor for different disease emerge”, “angry” is the main source of most diseases. Comedy, music or sports may alleviate suicide behaviors in the clinic.

References

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  2. Bondy B, Buettner A, Zill P (2006) Genetics of suicide. Mol Psychiatry 11: 336-351.
  3. Lu DY (2017) Suicide Risks and Treatments, New Ideas and Future Perspectives. Ed Da-Yong Lu, Nova Science Publishers, 2017, New York, US.
  4. Lu DY, Wu HY, Cao S, Che JY (2021) An overview of suicide study. EC Psychology & Psychiatry 10: 37-43.
  5. Mann JJ, Michel CA, Auerbach RP (2021) Improving suicide prevention through evidence-based strategies: A systematic review. AJP 178: 611-624. [crossref]
  6. Serafini, G, Salano P, Amore M (2015) Suicidal ideation: a comprehensive overview. Suicidal Ideation: Predictors, Prevalence and Prevention. Ed. Bradley Weaver. Nova Science Publishing. 1: 1-42.
  7. Kapur N, Gask L (2009) Introduction to suicide and self-harm. Psychiatry 8: 233-236.
  8. Lu DY, Zhu PP, Lu TR, Che JY (2016) The suicidal risks and treatments, seek medications from multi-disciplinary. Nerv. Syst. Agents Med. Chem 16: 231-239. [crossref]
  9. Shandilya S (2018) Suicide and suicide prevention: a historical review. The Research Journal of Social Science 9: 35-40.
  10. Lu DY, Wu HY, Cao S, Che JY (2020) Historical analysis of suicide. J Translational Genetics & Genomics 4: 33.
  11. Lu DY, Zhu PP, Wu HY, Yarla NS, Zhu H, Che JY (2016) Human suicide study, is there an association between suicide and mental illness. Metabolomics 6: 186.
  12. Na EJ, Lee H, Myung W, Fava M, Mischowlon D, et al (2019) Risks of completed suicide of community individuals with ICD-10 disorders across age groups: A nationwide population-based nested case-control study in South Korea. Psychiatry Investig 16: 314-324. [crossref]
  13. Acheampong AK, Aziato L (2018) Suicidal ideations and coping strategies of motors living with physical disabilities: a qualitative exploratory study in Ghana. BMC Psychiatry 18: 360. [crossref]
  14. Mann JJ, Rizk MM (2020) A brain-centric model of suicide behavior. Am J Psychiatry 177: 902-916. [crossref]
  15. Lu DY, Wu HY, Xu B (2021) Pathology study for human suicide. Health and Primary Care 5: 1-4.
  16. Lu DY, Wu HY (2021) Neuropsychiatric approaches for human suicide prediction and management. Int J Neuropsychology and Behavioral Science 2: 87-91.
  17. Lu DY, Wu HY (2021) Neuropsychiatric insights for human suicide. Int J Scientific Res Updates 1: 11-18.
  18. Lu DY, Zhu PP, Wu HY, Yarla NS, Xu B, et al (2018) Human suicide risk and treatment study. Cent Nerv Syst Agents Med Chem 18: 206-212. [crossref]
  19. Rutz W (2001) Preventing suicide and premature death by education and treatment. J Affect Disord.62: 123-129. [crossref]
  20. Kwon CY, Lee B (2023) The effect of herbal medicine on suicidal behavior: a protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis. Healthcare 11: 1387. [crossref]
  21. Salis F, Belfiori M, Bellisai A, Bernardini E, Murtas M, et al (2024) Cognitive impairment in people living with HIV and the impact of mood: results from a cross-sectional study. J Clinical Medicine 13: 1633. [crossref]
  22. Lu DY, Chen YZ, Lu DF, Che JY (2019) Patient’s care and nursery in different diseases. Hospice & Palliative Medicine International Journal 3: 28-30.
  23. Lu DY, Chen YZ, Lu DF, Che JY (2019) Patient’s care and nursery in modern medicine. Nursery Practice and Health Care 1: 101.
  24. Desmyter S, Bijttebier S, Heeringen K.V (2013) The role of neuroimaging in our understanding of the suicidal brain. CNS & Neurological Disorders-Drug Targets 12: 921-929 [crossref]
  25. Yuan Q, Seow E, Ablin E, Chua BY, Ong HL, et al (2018) Direct and moderating effects of personality on stigma towards mental illness. BM Psychiatry 18: 358 [crossref]
  26. Jiang JJ, Yan ZZ, Sheng C, Wang M, Guan QL, et al (2019) A novel detection tool for mild cognitive impairment patients based on eye movement and electroencephalogram. J Alzheimer’s disease 72: 389-399 [crossref]
  27. Kohyama J (2018) Serotonin is a key neurotransmitter in suicide. Encyclopedia of Suicide. Vol 3, Ed. Torres OB 9: 105-114.Nova Science Publishing, US.
  28. Lu DY, Che JY, Wu HY, Lu TR, Putta S (2020) Suicide risks and prevention, neuropathogenic study. EDEWEISS: Psychiatry 4: 124.
  29. Wang LL, Li JM, Liu HL, Wang ZP, Yang L, et al (2021) Influence factors for decision making performance of suicide attempts and suicide ideation: The roles of somatic markers and explicit knowledge. Front Psychology 12: 693879.
  30. Cornelius JR, Walker JD, Klima G, Fisher B (2015) Suicidal symptoms among veterans with chronic PTSD evaluated for treatment at a VA hospital. Suicidal Ideation: Predictors, Prevalence and Prevention. Ed. Bradley Weaver. Nova Science Publishing. US 2: 43-56.

Melt Inclusions in an Aplite Vein in Granodiorite of the Lusatian Massif: Extreme Alkali Sulfate Enrichment

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DOI: 10.31038/GEMS.2024633

Abstract

Besides a pseudo-secondary solvus curve (water vs. temperature), we show in this contribution an unusual enrichment of sulfate in melt inclusion in quartz from an aplite vein in the Lusatian granodiorite. Sulfate is Lorentzian distributed. Together with the solvus curve and this type of element distribution, we interpret these as a result of the interaction of supercritical fluids coming from mantle deeps with more crustal rocks.

Keywords

Sulfate-rich melt inclusions, Supercritical fluids, Lorentzian sulfate distribution, Raman spectroscopy

Introduction

The analyses of melt inclusions in quartz give necessary hints to the formation of magmatic mineralizations. Information on the temperature and the composition of the melt belong to this data. A significant result is the bulk-water concentration of the melt inclusions. Temperature and water concentrations often form a pseudo-binary solvus curve with a critical point. Such curves clearly show that the melt inclusions conserve a complex history of formation. In addition, some elements show a direct correlation to the solvus. Some elements form a Gaussian or Lorentzian distribution and

demonstrate, together with the occurrence of indicator minerals (diamond and others), their origin from mantle regions [1,2] as supercritical fluid. Some years ago, the first author found quartz crystals in an aplite vein in the granodiorite from Oppach in the Lusatian mountainous country with extreme sulfate-rich melt inclusions. These results are mentioned only in passing because, at that time, a clear interpretation was not possible. Here, we give primary sulfate results.

Sample Material

For the study, we used quartz crystals from a 1 m thick, strongly weathered aplite vein in an abandoned granodiorite quarry on the boundary of village lands between Oppach and Neusalza-Spremberg (Andert, 1936) [3]. The vein has an incline of 85° to north and a strike of 20° east. Figure 1 shows a quartz-dominated vein part with only tiny specularite (hematite) crystal aggregates. The quartz indicates strong corrosion signs.

fig 1

Figure 1: Vein quartz specimen from the aplite vein from Oppach/Lusatia

In the center of the aplite vein, there are miarolitic cavities filled with quartz crystals embedded in black mica-like specularite crystals. Figure 2 shows samples of cleaned water-clear quartz crystal and untreated quartz-specularite samples.

fig 2

Figure 2: Cleaned quartz crystal (a), specularite, and quartz (b and c). The quartz, mostly in (c), shows a brown covering of Fe-hydroxides.

The quartz of the untreated samples generally has a limonite cover. The quartz contains innumerable fluid and melt inclusions, as well as a lot of different mineral inclusions, like graphite, specularite, albite, rubicline, orthoclase, anhydrite, barite, calcite, dolomite, siderite, smithsonite, bastnäsite-(Ce), xenotime-(Y) and deep-blue monazite-(Ce), as well as hingganite-(Y) [Y, Yb, Er)BeSiO4(OH)] [4]. Figure 3 gives details of the specularite-quartz intergrow (quartz – bright, specularite – black). Such types of specularite veins or miarolitic cavities are in the Lusatian mountainous county widespread [5]. Figure 4 shows some mineral inclusion (siderite and specularite (Hem) in a quartz crystal, and Figure 5 is a BSE image of hingganite-(Y) distributed in the quartz (often at or near the surface, however also in the whole volume). Generally, the fluid inclusions are of secondary origin. That fluid inclusion homogenizes at 256 ± 15°C (n=20) into the liquid phase. In this contribution, we concentrate on the melt inclusions in quartz.

fig 3

Figure 3: Quartz-specularite intergrowth

fig 4

Figure 4: Quartz (Qtz) with mineral inclusions: Sd: Siederite, Hem: Specularite

fig 5

Figure 5: REE-rich Be silicate hingganite-(Y) crystals in quartz from the aplite vein from Oppach/Lusatia.

Figure 3 shows the intense intergrowth of light quartz and black specularite. Maybe the primary quartz was replaced partially by the specularite.

Methodology

Microscopy

For the microscopic and Raman spectroscopic studies, we generally used on both sides polished quartz chips about 300 to 500 µm thick. For both transmission and reflection studies, we used the JENALAB pol and the Olympus BX43 microscopes.

Homogenization Measurements: Cold-Seal Pressure Vessel Homogenization Experiments

Generally, the melt inclusions in quartz are in a wholly crystallized state with a more or less large vapor bubble. Therefore, it was necessary to re-homogenize the inclusions to a homogeneous, daughter crystal-free glass for electron microprobe and Raman spectroscopic studies. We used the conventional horizontal cold-seal pressure vessel technique in GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ) Potsdam (the procedure is described by Thomas et al. 2000) [6,7]. Here, quartz chips came into an open Au capsule (30 mm long, 5 mm diameter). The vessel was pressurized with CO2 to 1, 2, or 3 kbar, and the sample was moved into the preheated furnace (500, 550, 600, 650, and 700°C respectively). The run time was generally 20 hours. After the experiments, the Au capsule was removed from the furnace and quenched isobarically with compressed air. After quenching, the samples were re-polished and mounted on glass disks to determine the water content of the glass by confocal micro-Raman spectroscopy. It is essential here that by the technique used and the high water content, the primary homogeneous water-rich glass is not stable and disintegrates into a homogeneous water-bearing glass (readily determinable with the Raman spectroscopy [8,9]. The free water phase in the inclusion is determined volumetrically. For this, we used generally well-formed melt inclusions – see Figure 6. The experimental run number could minimized in that way, that in each gold capsule, came up to 10 different samples, which are easily distinguished (thickness, one-sided or on both sides polished chips, or by a specific form). It is also crucial that in the experiments performed at higher temperatures, all inclusions trapped during crystal growth at lower temperatures are also homogenized and can used by interpolation. For special studies, the hydrothermal rapid-quench homogenization experiments with a significantly faster quenching rate showed [6,7,10,13] that by this technique, the whole volume of the inclusion shows under the microscope a homogeneous, however, metastable glass.

fig 6

Figure 6: Typical re-homogenized, near-critical (700°C, 3 kb, 20 hours) melt inclusion in quartz from Oppach/Lusatia. Fl – fluid phase, containing high concentrations of sulfate, G – silicate glass, V – vapor phase.

Raman Spectroscopy

For the Raman spectroscopy performed at the GFZ Potsdam, we used a Jobin-Yvon LabRam HR800 spectrometer (grating: 2400 gr/mm) equipped with an Olympus optical microscope and a long-working-distance LMPlanFl 100x/0.80 objective. Generally, we used a 488 nm excitation of a Coherent Ar+ laser Model Innova 70C, a power of 45 mW on the sample, at a resolution ≤ 0.6 cm-1. Each unpolarized spectrum represents an accumulation of six acquisitions of 20 seconds each. We collected the Raman spectra at a constant laboratory temperature of 20°C with a Peltier-cooled CCD detector [10].

Sulfate Determination

From fluid inclusion studies, we know that some inclusion solutions contain high concentrations of SO42-, as indicated by Raman spectroscopy and the strong band at 983 cm-1. The fluid phase of the re-homogenized melt inclusions generally shows a high to very high Raman band for sulfate, too. An assignment to cations is not possible in a simple way. Therefore, we have concentrated on the determination or estimation of the sulfate concentration. In 2012, Thomas and Davidson [9] constructed a calibration curve (unpublished) for the sulfate determination shown in Figure 7.

fig 7

Figure 7: Calibration curve for the determination of sulfate in the liquid phase of the re-homogenized melt inclusion. ISO4 is the intensity of the sulfate Raman band at about 983 cm-1. I3300 and I3410 are the intensities of both sub-Gaussian bands for water (OH stretching bands of water) in the range of 2800 to 3800 cm-1.

Zhu et al. [13] have, in the meantime, developed and published the method of sulfate determination in detail. They also used the integral intensity of the OH-stretching vibrations as an internal standard (see Figure 6a-c in Thomas and Davidson, 2012) [12]. The analog procedure is applicable to the determination of carbonate and bicarbonate [12], too.

Results

Our study first followed the idea that many inclusions form a solvus curve. Figure 8 shows the resulting pseudo-binary solvus curve in the coordinates water content [H2O (%(g/g))] of the melt inclusions versus the re-homogenization temperatures.

fig 8

Figure 8: Solvus curve for melt inclusions in quartz crystals from Oppach/Lusatia. C.P.: Critical Point. Each point is the mean of up to ten different melt inclusions.

In Thomas and Rericha (2023 and 2024) [1,2], we have discussed forming a pseudo-binary solvus with a critical point (C.P.) combined with extreme element enrichment in the form of Lorentzian distribution of elements (look at Figure 2b in Thomas and Rericha, 2024) [2] is a strong argument for the influence of supercritical fluids coming from mantle deeps to the crustal mineralization. Therefore, we have analyzed the re-homogenized melt inclusions for different elements. To our surprise, the inclusions contain, besides moderate carbonate concentrations (3.5 ± 0.7% CO32-), high concentrations of sulfate (SO42-), which are Lorentzian distributed (Figure 9). Noteworthy is that the fluid phase of the melt inclusion is homogeneous and contains no daughter crystals at room temperature (20°C). That is also true for the second distribution.

fig 9

Figure 9: First Lorentzian curve of the sulfate distribution versus water concentration

The offset (0.45% SO42-) corresponds to twice the Clarke for granitic rocks. 21.3% sulfate at the center (29% H2O) is for an aplitic rock exceptionally high. A further careful study yields a second, more complex Lorentzian curve with significantly lower sulfate concentrations (Figure 10). This curve shows two Lorentzian components, which may have been generated by different species or different amounts of water in the corresponding compound (Table 1).

fig 10

Figure 10: This figure shows the analytical sulfate determination in melt inclusion in quartz from Oppach/Lusatia. Each point is the mean of sulfate of up to ten different inclusions. The bulk curve is composed of two different Lorentzian components.

Table 1: Results of the Lorentzian fit of sulfate vs. water. R2=0.986 (Figure 9)

Peak

 Area Center (%H2O) Width (%H2O) Offset (%SO42-)

Height (%SO42-)

Red

 260 29.0 7.8 0.45

21.3

Table 2 contains the characteristic data for this Lorentzian curve. Obviously, two different species are forming two distinct curves, which can be traced back to different H2O numbers as the most straightforward explanation.

Table 2: Results of the Lorentzian fit of sulfate vs. water. R2=0.98. The Y offset (SO42-)=0

Peak

 Area Center (%H2O) Width (%H2O)

Height (%SO42-)

1 (green)

102.4

 28.2 11.2 5.8
2 (blue)  40.9 36.8  8.6

3.0

Discussion

The determined sulfate concentration in melt inclusions in quartz from Oppach is exceptionally high for a magmatic granite-aplite system. Because the water solution contains no daughter phase, the solubility of sulfates must be very high. Alkali, beryllium, and iron sulfates are the first candidates. Naumov et al. (2008) [14] described high sulfate concentrations in melt inclusions in chrome diopside from Yakutia/Russia. The situation there seems different because the sulfate concentration of the melt from which the chrome diopside crystallized is significantly lower than in the case of Oppach. In Thomas et al., 2016 [11] a similar high sulfate concentration in fluid and melt inclusions in the Melaune granite is described. There, in some fluid inclusions, the sulfate concentration is 12.2 ± 1.8 (%(g/g)). In Table 3 are put together the solubility of some sulfates at 20°Cs [15,16].

Table 3: Solubility of some sulfates and the corresponding sulfate concentration in the melt inclusion solution at 20°C

Compound

 Solubility at 20°C (%(g/g))

Sulfate concentration (%(g/g))
BeSO4 · 4 H2O

28.0

15.2
CaSO4 · 2 H2O

 0.202

 0.12
FeSO4 · 7 H2O

20.8

 7.19
K2SO4

10.0

 5.51
Na2SO4 · 7 H2O

21.3

 8.12

We see that at the critical point of the first Lorentzian curve, the sulfate concentration (21.3%) is so high that besides FeSO4, a lot of other sulfates must be present in the supercritical solution. The mineral inclusions in quartz demonstrate that the supercritical fluid contains, besides H2O, sulfates, carbonates, phosphates, Na, K, Be, Ca, Fe, REE, and others. The dominance of specularite in this paragenesis shows that the following simplified reaction for Fe is responsible for the change of the supercritical state to the under-critical/hydrothermal state – the change from iron(II)- to iron(III)-sulfate, and crystallization of specularite:

Fe2(SO4)3 + 3 H2O=Fe2O3↓ + 3 H2SO4                                                              (1)

The formal formation of sulphuric acid is responsible for the dissolving of macroscopic carbonates (calcite, siderite) and the strong corrosion of the quartz-albite rock. In Electronic supplementary material by Thomas and Davidson (2017) [16], it is demonstrated that of the high sulfate concentration in the melt-fluid system, the behavior of the REE in comparison to granitic systems is very different.

Acknowledgment

The author thanks Christian Hermann for new samples from the Oppach locality, which initiated the present paper. Furthermore, thanks go to Prof. Pei Ni (Nanjing/China) for recalling the sulfate determination method, which goes back to 2006.

References

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  2. Thomas R, Rericha A (2024) Meaning of supercritical fluids in pegmatite formation and critical-element redistribution. Geol Earth Mar Sci 6: 1-5.
  3. Andert H (1936) Wie entstand die Oppacher Landschaft? Grenzland Oberlausitz. Oberlausitzer Heimatzeitung 17: 91-94.
  4. Thomas R, Davidson P (2017) Hingganite-(Y) from a small aplite vein in granodiorite from Oppach, Lusatian Mts., E-Germany. Mineralogy and Petrology 111: 821-826.
  5. Lange W, Tischendorf G, Krause U (2004) Minerale der Oberlausitz. Verlag Gunter Oettel
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  13. Zhu D, Zhu Z, Pan J, Ding J, Ni P (2015) Raman micro-spectroscopic study of sulfate ion in the system Na2SO4 – H2 Acta Geologica Sinica 89: 887-893.
  14. Naumov VB, Kamenetsky VS, Thomas R, Kononkova NN, Ryzhenko BN (2008) Inclusions of silicate and sulfate melts in chrome diopside from the Inagli deposit, Yakutia, Russia. Geochemistry International 46: 554-564
  15. Nývlt J (1977) Solid-liquid phase equilibria. Elsevier, Amsterdam, 248.
  16. Thomas R, Davidson P (2017) Hingganite-(Y) from a small aplite vein in granodiorite from Oppach, Lusatian Mts., E-Germany. Mineralogy and Petrology 111: 821-826.